Wto And Its Impact 6e3a5a

UNIT 4 CHANGES IN THE GLOBAL MARKET PLACE

LESSON 14 WTO AND ITS IMPACT

• To understand the concept of GATT, and how once it

controlled the world trade, through its common rules and regulations for conducting smoothly the affairs of international trade. • To understand, as to why GATT was abolished, what were

its shortcomings and how WTO is better and more effective as a regulatory body to control the working of International trade?

to by the signatories to the GATT which ‘was ‘an agreement signed by the contracting nations which were itted on the basis of their willingness to accept the GATT disciplines The GATT was transformed into a World Trade Organisation (WTO) with effect from January, 1995. Thus, after about five decades, the original proposal of an International Trade Organisation took shape as the WTO. The WTO, which is a more powerful body than the GATT, has an enlarged role than the GATT.

WHO and its Impact The global business environment is very significantly influenced by the World Trade Organization (WTO) principles and agreements. They also affect the domestic environment. For example, India has had to substantially liberalise imports, including almost complete removal of quantitative import restrictions.

India is one of the founder of the IMF, World Bank, GATT and the WTO.

The liberalisation of imports implies that domestic firms have to face an increasing competition from foreign goods. Liberalisation of foreign investment can result-in growing competition from local outfits of MNCs.

1. Raising standard of living. 2. Ensuring full employment and a large and steadily growing, volume of real income and effectiye demand. -

These liberalisations, on the other hand, also provides’ new opportunities for Indian firms as the foreign markets become more open for exports and investments The liberalisation also enables Indian’ firms to seek foreign equity participation and foreign technology. This could help them to expand their business or improve competitiveness. Further, the liberalisatlon facilitates global sourcing by Indian firms so that they can improve their competitiveness. Indian suppliers can benefit from global sourcing by foreign firms. Firms will have to be efficient and dynamic to survive the global competition. Inefficient firms may go out of business. Consumers stand to benefit significantly from the liberalisation. GATT The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the predecessor of WTO, was born in 1948 as result of the international desire to liberalise trade. The Bretton Woods Conference of 1944, which had recommende9 the IMF and World Bank, had also recommended the establishment of an International Trade Organisation (ITO). Although the IMF and World Bank were established in 1946, the ITO charter was never ratified, because of objections that its enforcement provisions would interfere with the autonomy of domestic policy making. Instead, the GATT, which had been drawn up only as an interim agreement to fill the gap until the ITO charter was ratified, became the framework for international trading system since it came into being in 1948. The international trading system since 1948 was, at least in principle, guided by the rules and procedures agreed

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Objectives The primary objective of GATT was to expand international trade by liberalising trade so as to bring about all round economic prosperity. The Preamble to the GATT mentioned the following as its important objectives.

3. Developing full use of the resources of the world. 4. Expansion of production and international trade. GATT embodied certain conventions and general principles governing international trade among countries that adhere to the agreement. The rules or conventions of GATT required that: 1. Any proposed change in the tariff, or other type of commercial policy of a member country should not be undertaken without consultation of other parties to the agreement. 2. The countries that adhere to GATT should work towards the reduction of tariffs and other barriers to international trade, which should be negotiated within the framework of GATT. For the realisation of its objectives, GATT adopted the following principles: 1. Non-discrimination: The principle of non-discrimination requires that no member country shall discriminate between the of GATT in the conduct of international trade. To ensure non-discrimination the of GATT agree to apply the principle of most favoured nation (MFN) to all import and export duties. This means that “each nation shall be treated as well as the most favoured nation.” As far as quantitative restrictions are permitted, they too, are to be istered without favour. However, certain exceptions to this principle are allowed. For instance, GATT does not prohibit economic integration such as free trade areas or customs union, provided the purpose of such integration is “to facilitate trade between the constituent

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Learning Objectives:

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territories and not to raise barriers to the trade of other parties.” The GATT also permits the to adopt measures to counter dumping and export subsidies. However, the application of such measures shall be limited to the offending countries. 2. Prohibition of Quantitative Restrictions: GATT rules seek to prohibit quantitative restrictions as far as possible and limit restrictions on trade to the less rigid tariffs. However, certain exceptions to this prohibition are granted to countries confronted with balance of payments, difficulties and to developing countries. Further, import restrictions were allowed to apply to agricultural and fishery products if domestic production of these articles was subject to equally restrictive production or marketing controls. 3. Consultation: By providing a forum for continuing consultation, it sought to resolve disagreements through consultation. So far eight Rounds of trade negotiations were held under the auspices of the GATT. Each Round took several years. The Uruguay Round, the latest one, took more than seven years to conclude, as against the originally contemplated more than four years. This shows the complexity of the issues involved in the trade negotiations. An Evaluation of GATT The growing acceptance of GATT, despite its shortcomings, is evinced by the increase in the number of the signatories. When the GATT was signed in 1947, only 23 nations were party to it. It increased to 99 by the time of the Seventh Round and 117 countries participated in the next, i. e., the Uruguay Round. In July 1995, there were 128 signatories with further 25 countries formally seeking accession to the WTO. The signatory countries for about 90 per cent of the international trade indicating the potential of the WTO in bringing about an orderly development of the international trade. One of the principal achievements of GATT was the establishment of a forum for continuing consultations. “Disputes that might otherwise have caused continuing hard feeling, reprisals, and even diplomatic rupture have been brought to the conference table and compromised”. GATT could achieve considerable trade liberalisation. There were, of course, several exceptions. Agricultural trade was clearly an exception to the liberalisation. Far from becoming freer, trade in agriculture became progressively more distorted by the given to farmers (which took the form of severe barriers to imports and subsidies to exports) in the industrial nations. Similarly, another exception was textiles. Trade in textiles was restricted by the Multifibre Arrangement (MFA). Under the MFA imports of textile items to a number of developed countries were restricted by quotas. Besides agriculture and textiles, two exceptions to the general trend of trade liberalisation have been trade of developing countries and economic integration. Developing countries with balance of payments problems have been generally exempted form the liberalisation. Even the Uruguay Round has granted such exemptions to developing countries.

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Although the picture of trade liberalisation has to be qualified with such exceptions, the GATT achieved very commendable trade liberalisation. The average level of tariffs on manufactured products in industrial countries was brought down from about 40 per cent in 1947 to nearly three per cent after the Uruguay Round. Indeed the period of 1950-1973 is conspicuous by the splendid results of progressive trade liberalisation. In the 275 years since 1720, this period witnessed the highest average annual growth rates in output and international trade. These rates were substantially higher than for any other period. Indeed, the 1950s and 1960s are described as the golden decades of capitalism. The output levels of companies using newer and newer technologies in many eases were much larger than the domestic markets could absorb. Expansion of markets to other countries enabled even companies in other industries to increase their output. There was also a surge in international investments. The progressive liberalisation of trade, however, suffered a setback since 1974. Although the elimination of Tariff Barriers continued, even the developed countries have substantially increased Non- Tariff Barriers since then. The collapse of the Bretton Woods system in the early 1970s and the oil crisis made matters very difficult for many countries, both developing and developed, and as a result of these demands for protection increased dramatically. The developing country exports have been hit very hard by the NTBs, as pointed out earlier in this lesson. Further, the exports of developing countries gained significantly less from the GATT Rounds than did exports of the industrial nations. The trade liberalisation has been confined mostly to goods of interest to the developed countries. In case of agricultural commodities .not only was, that there was no liberalisation, but also there was an increase in protection. Manufactured products of interest to developing countries like textiles and clothing, footwear etc. have been subject to increasing non-tariff barriers. While the developed countries enjoy a more liberalised trading environment, the growing NTBs have been severely affecting the exports of developing countries. Ironically, the developed countries are increasing the protectionism when the, developing countries are liberalising. This is indeed a sad commentary on the GATT and other “multilateral organisation. The Uruguay Round Uruguay Round (UR) is the name by which the eighth and the latest Round of the multilateral trade negotiations (MTNs) held under the auspices of the GATT is popularly known because it was launched in Punta del Este in Uruguay, a developing country, in September 1986. Because of the complexities of the issues involved and the conflicts of interests among the participating countries, the Uruguay Round could not be conclude in December 1990 as was originally scheduled. When the negotiations dragged on, Arther Dunkel, the then Director General of GATT, presented a Draft Act embodying what he thought was the result of the Uruguay Round. This came to be popularly known as the

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The first six Rounds of MTNs concentrated almost exclusively on reducing tariffs, while the Seventh Round (Tokyo Round1973c 79) moved on to tackle non-tariff barriers (NTBs). The UR sought to broaden the scope of MTNs far wider by including new areas such as: • Trade in services • Trade related aspects of inte11ectual property (TRIPs) • Trade related investment measures (TRIMs).

Because of the inclusion of these new aspects in The GATT negotiations, the developing countries had serious apprehensions, about outcome of the Uruguay Round. The Uruguay Round took up three basic subjects for discussion: 1. Reducing specific trade barriers and improving market access. 2. Strengthening GATT disciplines. 3. Problems, of liberalisation of trade in services, trade related aspects of intellectual property rights (TRIPs) and trade related investment measures (TRIMs). The most outstanding feature of the UR was the inclusion of the subjects in the 3rd item referred to above in the MTN s of GATT. The traditional concerns of the GATT were limited to international trade in goods. TheUR went much beyond goods to services, technology, investment and information. Some of the important features of the Uruguay Round Agreements are given below. GATT and WTO Following the UR Agreement, GATT was converted from a provisional agreement into a formal international organisation called World Trade Organisation (WTO) with effect from January 1, 1995. WTO now serves as a single institutional framework encoming GATT and all the results of the Uruguay Round. It is directed by a Ministerial Conference that will meet at least once every two years and its regular business is overseen by a General Council. The old GATT system allowed, under what was known as the grandfather clause’, existing domestic legislation to continue even if it violated a GATT agreement that a member country had accepted by being a signatory to GATT. The WTO, specially rules this out. The situation, after the coming into effect of WTO may be described as the GATT is dead, long live the GATT. Under the old system, there were two GATTs: (i) GATT the Agreement - i.e., the agreement between contracting parties (governments) setting out the rules for conducting international trade; (ii) GATT the Organisation-an international organisation created, to facilitate discussions and istration related to the Agreement (ad hoc, though, continued to exist until the

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establishment of the WTO). GATT the organisation, ceased to exist with the establishment of WTO; GATT the agreement, which always dealt with (and still does) trade in goods, continues to exist, in amended form, as part of the WTO alongside two new agreements, viz., General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and General Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs). The old text is now called ‘GATT 1947’ and the updated version is called ‘GAIT 1994’. In short, the WTO is GATT plus a lot more. Table 5.1 Difference Between GATT and WTO Table 5.1 Difference Between GATT and WTO GATT GATT was ad hoc and provisional GATT had contracting parties GATT system allowed existing domestic Legislation to continue even of it violated a GATT agreement GATT was less powerful, dispute settlement system was slow and less efficient, its ruling could be blocked

WTO WTO and its agreements are permanent WTO has WTO does not permit WTO is more powerful than GATT, dispute settlement mechanism is faster and more efficient, very difficult to block the rulings.

GATT was ad hoc and provisionalGATT had contracting parties GATT system allowed existing domesticLegislation to continue even of it violated a GATT agreementGATT was less powerful, dispute settlement system was slow and less efficient, its ruling could be blocked WTO and its agreements are permanent WTO has WTO does not permitWTO is more powerful than GATT, dispute settlement mechanism is faster and more efficient, very difficult to block the rulings. Functions The WTO has the following five specific functions. 1. The WTO shall facilitate the implementation, istration and operation and further the objectives of the Multilateral Trade Agreements and shall also provide the framework for the implementation, istration and operation of plurilateral Trade Agreements. 2. The WTO shall provide the forum for negotiations among its concerning their multilateral trade relations in matters dealt with under the Agreements. 3. The WTO shall ister the ‘Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes’ 4. The WTO shall ister the ‘Trade Review Mechanism’ 5. With a view to achieving greater coherence in global economic policy making, the WTO shall cooperate, as appropriate, with the IMP and IBRD and its d agencies. The General Council will serve four main functions: 1. To supervise on a regular basis the operations of the revised agreements and ministerial declarations relating to (a) goods, (b) services and (c) TRIPs; 2. to act as a Dispute Settlement Body; 3. to serve as a Trade Review Mechanism; and 4. to establish Goods Council, Services Council and TRIPs Council, as subsidiary bodies. The WTO is a more powerful body with enlarged functions than the GATT and is e1lvisaged to playa major role in the” world economic affairs. To become a member of the WTO, a

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Dunkel Draft. This was replaced by an enlarged and modified final text which was approved by delegations from the member countries of the GATT on 15th December 1993. This Final Act was signed by ministers of l25governp1ents on 15th April1994. The results of the Uruguay Round are to be implemented within ten years since” 1995. Different time periods are given for effecting the different agreements.

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country must completely accept the results of the Uruguay Round. Questions: 1.What is GATT, and what were its objectives? 2.How did WTO came into existence, what are its objectives and in what way it is more powerful body than GATT?

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