The Stages Of Moral And Ethical Development In Harry Potter 3x6y2i

THE STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN HARRY POTTER

Micah Fenner Keystone Project May 29th, 2012

2 In 1990, as she was riding on a train from Manchester to London, the idea for J.K. Rowling’s now bestselling series, Harry Potter “simply fell into [her] head.”1 It took five years for her to finish the manuscript and another two years before it was published; ten years later, in 2007, the final book in the series was published. Though the sales numbers for each individual book have not been released, her agent estimates that approximately 450 million copies of Harry Potter books have been sold.{, 2011 #2}2 The potential impact for these books to have on the generation that has been raised reading them is enormous; and Rowling has not ignored this. Throughout the series, she has taken advantage of her powerful platform to give today’s youth a basis for moral behavior. Rowling understood that Harry and his friends serve as role models for children, teenagers, and even adults all around the world, and through the scenarios that she presents in the novels, a set of values becomes clear that can be applied outside the magical realm of Hogwarts. By analyzing Harry and his friends’ behavior through the lens of Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral and ethical development, one can gain insight into what Rowling considers to be ethical behavior. The individuals who operate at higher levels of moral consideration are ultimately portrayed in a positive light, while those who do not are often demonized. In the 1960’s and 70’s Lawrence Kohlberg, a psychologist at Harvard began conducting studies concerning the moral reasoning of children. He presented young boys with a moral dilemma and analyzed the reasoning by which each child came to their decision. These studies became the basis for a system of moral maturation, which

1

J. K. Rowling, "Biography," http://www.jkrowling.com.

2

"Rowling Looking Into Harry Potter E-Books," ABC News, April 4 2011.

3 describes the thinking processes that lead to decisions.3 These six stages of moral development, divided into three levels, do not rank how moral someone’s behavior is, rather they describe the process by which one comes to a decision and thus, those who operate at higher levels display more consistently moral behavior.4 The stages and levels are as follows: “Level I: Pre-Conventional • Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience • Stage 2: Instrumental Exchange

Level II: Conventional • Stage 3: Interpersonal Conformity • Stage 4: Social System and Conscience Maintenance

Level III: Post-Conventional • Stage 5: Prior Rights and Social Contract • Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles.”5 Rowling portrays Harry and his friends as the model for her readers as well as society. As they progress from a pre-conventional to a post-conventional approach, their behavior reflects what they believe to be best for not just themselves, but for others, thus demonstrating thinking and action that is based upon universal ethical principles. As they reach the final stages of development, they even begin to perform acts of social justice, 3

Katherine M. Grimes and Lana A. Whited, "What Would Harry Do? J.K. Rowling and Lawrence Kohlberg's Theories of Moral Development," in The Ivory Tower and Harry Potter: Perspectives on a Literary Phenomenon, ed. Lana A. Whited (Columbia, MI: University of Missouri Press, 2002), 184-85. 4 5

W.C. Crain, Theories of Development (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1985). 118-36.

Lawrence Kohlberg, "The Philosophy of Moral Development: Moral Stages and the Idea of Justice," Essays on Moral Development 1(1981).

4 which serve as the ultimate ideal for behavior in Rowling’s universe. The example set by Harry and his friends have touched millions of lives and have shaped the generation that will become the leaders of the world in the near future. Level I, or the Pre-Conventional level describes the reasoning that is common in children, though not unheard of in adults as well. In stage 1, the individual makes decisions based on the consequences that the decision will have on one’s self. In this case, the individual determines the morality of his/her actions based on the severity of the punishment or the extent of the reward that results from the action. In stage 2, the individual makes decisions based on what is in his/her best interest. Though this may seem similar to stage 1, in fact, an individual in this stage does take into the effects their actions have on others, though only as far as it affects their own interests.6 The Conventional level of moral development is by far the most common and is visible in both adults and adolescents. In fact, most remain in the Level II stage of development for their whole lives. Individuals in this level rigidly adhere to societal norms regardless of whether or not they will be punished for any digressions. This behavior is rooted in the comparison of one’s actions to societal expectations and conventions. Stage 3 consists of the individual attempting to live up to society’s expectations. They will attempt to fill their perceived role in society and in the social hierarchy, usually by judging their actions based on the effects that it would have on their relationships. Rules are seen as guidelines for these social interactions, yet serve no higher purpose. However, in stage 4 the individual views rules, laws, and conventions as important to ensure societal stability. In this stage, the individual feels an obligation to 6

Lawrence Kohlberg, "Education, Moral Development and Faith," Journal of Moral Education 4, no. 1 (1974): 5-16.

5 adhere to rules and laws for the good of society, without their own personal interests in mind. This stage is the highest that most individuals go on the scale of moral development.7 Finally, the Post-Conventional level, or Level III, of moral reasoning is an ideal postulated by Kohlberg, though it is considered near impossible to attain. An individual at this level acknowledges the primacy of the individual in that the perspective of an individual may take precedence over that of society. As such, rules are tools which can be used to enforce certain basic principles or rights; however, they can be broken if they no longer serve that purpose. This can often be confused with the narcissistic perspective of those operating at the Pre-Conventional moral level, however these two manners of thinking are markedly different as the Post-Conventional individual is not acting in their own interests, but rather in the interest of universal ideals. Stage 5 is based on the idea of a social contract. At this stage, an individual views the values and opinions of all individuals as valid, and they view laws as the means by which society can achieve this freethinking mindset. When certain laws or norms operate contrary to this goal, they can be changed. An example of this kind of thinking would be a democratic government, which operates under this ideal of a social contract that serves the majority of the population. In the final stage, actions are no longer based upon social contract, but rather absolute, universal ethical principles. Justice and equality are the basis upon which all individuals act, which allows for the disobeying of unjust laws. The individual acts because the action is objectively right and just.8 7

Lawrence Kohlberg, "The Claim to Moral Adequacy of a Highest Stage of Moral Judgement," Journal of Philosophy 70, no. 18 (1973): 630-46. 8

Lawrence Kohlberg, "Moral stages and moralization: The cognitive-developmental approach," in Moral Development and Behavior: Theory, Research and Social Issues, ed. T. Lickona (Holy, NY: Rinehart and Winston, 1976).

6 Throughout the Harry Potter series, there are two distinct types of characters that leave an impression upon the reader: the good characters and the bad characters. On the good side are characters such as Ron, Hermione, Dumbledore, and Harry himself, while on the bad side are Draco Malfoy, Voldemort, and Dolores Umbridge. What defines these characters are the decisions they make and the reasoning behind those decisions, which can be classified according to Lawrence Kohlberg’s scale of moral development. It becomes clear that the bad characters are the ones who are lower on the scale, while the characters that the reader comes to know and love are those who function at higher levels of development. Draco Malfoy is a perfect example of Pre-Conventional moral processing. He clearly acts for his own personal gain regardless of whom he harms along the way. The first time the reader encounters Malfoy is in Madame Malkin’s robe shop, where he appears to be initially friendly, yet quickly expresses judgment and hatred toward others while boasting about his own accomplishments.9 He does not think about the way that his actions will affect anyone but himself, thus exhibiting Level I reasoning. Though Malfoy does progress throughout the series, he does not ascend any higher than stage three, as he no longer acts out of self-interest necessarily, rather he acts so as to conform to the norms set by his family as well as the expectations that Voldemort has for his future. This is what leads him to attempt to kill Albus Dumbledore and continues to motivate him to work his way up the ranks of the Death Eaters (Voldemort’s followers).10 Malfoy’s narcissism throughout the series is the cause of Harry’s animosity towards him, and it is 9

J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone, Paperback ed., Harry Potter (New York: Scholastic, Inc, 1998). 77-78. 10

J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, Harry Potter (New York: Arthur A. Levine Books, 2005). 585-92.

7 ultimately why the reader comes to dislike him as well. Another character that is universally hated by Harry Potter readers is Dolores Umbridge. As the Hogwarts High Inquisitor, she displays a Pre-Conventional sense of morality as well as during her stint at the Ministry of Magic. Additionally, she enforces her warped morals upon her subordinates. Her attitude is purely one of reactionary and punitive punishment. As a teacher at Hogwarts and later, the Hogwarts High Inquisitor in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, she takes great glee in enforcing the most mundane of rules and enacting their punishments. Her unique punishments not only cause Harry physical pain (as she forces him to write lines, in his own blood),11 but also stifle the creativity and unique nature of the school as well as the student’s moral growth and development.12 As a low-level bureaucrat with a corresponding mindset, she lets her own misguided power get to her head and uses her position as a platform for brainwashing rather than encouraging true education and learning. By nature of her enforcing this PreConventional mindset, she is seen as a force for evil in the Harry Potter series. Harry is seen as growing and maturing through these various developmental stages. When the reader first meets him, at eleven years old, there is evidence that he has already reached stage three on this scale: Punishments are found to be largely ineffective in curbing his often-boisterous behavior. This is largely due to the fact that his rule breakage is not founded in reasoning; rather it is rooted in Harry’s desire to increase his social standing or to fit in (e.g. having an illicit Wizarding duel with Malfoy so as to not appear weak, as well as to be able to prove himself to his friends).13 This stage is the most 11

J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Harry Potter (New York: Arthur A. Levine Books, 2003). 266-67. 12

Ibid., 351.

13

Rowling, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone: 143-62.

8 common among all Harry Potter characters as they generally are rule abiding, yet they wish to conform to social norms. There are some characters, such as Hermione Granger who also hold some more elevated stage four beliefs in the importance of rules to maintain social order and thus are quite at odds with the rule-breaking of Harry and his friends.14 This level of moral processing does not last long for Harry and his friends, and they rapidly progress through the stages. In fact, Harry arguably reaches as high as stage five or possibly even stage six at the end of The Deathly Hallows when he sacrifices unlimited power that would be provided by his possession of all three hallows (powerful magical artifacts) by ensuring that all three could never be together again.15 In recognizing that such unlimited power is dangerous for society as well as unjust, Harry applies a set of ethical principles that go along with Level III thinking. Harry takes these elevated moral standards from his role models throughout the series. Sirius Black and Dumbledore are both very high up on this scale of moral development. Black, a role model for Harry as well as his godfather, displays stage 6 reasoning as he onishes Peter Pettigrew for betraying the Potters (“THEN YOU SHOULD HAVE DIED…RATHER THAN BETRAY YOUR FRIENDS!”).16 This is evidence for stage 6 reasoning, as Black is not suggesting merely that Pettigrew should have died rather than betray the Potters specifically, but that one should die before betraying one’s friends as an abstract concept. This indicates the presence of Black’s set 14

Ibid.

15

J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Harry Potter (New York: Arthur A. Levine Books, 2007). 749. 16

J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Harry Potter (New York: Arthur A. Levine Books, 2000). 374-75.

9 of universal ethical principles that he feels have been violated. Another noteworthy relationship in the series is quite obviously that between Dumbledore and Harry. From the outset, “he is the individual who outlines the nature of the moral battle that is taking place, usually in his conversations with Harry,”17 yet this is a small part of their utterly complex relationship. His mentoring of Harry, as well as the memory he leaves behind after he dies, is arguably Harry’s primary motivation in continuing the fight for good. In contrast, Harry’s relationship with Snape is far from ideal. Snape harbors his grudge against James, Harry’s father, and holds it against Harry, taking every opportunity to take away house points, give detentions, or cause general embarrassment. Though it may seem contrary to Rowling’s point to have a relationship of this type in the book, it serves not only to contrast the good relationships, but Snape is also associated with the House of Slytherin as well as Voldemort and is thus associate with all that is evil (at least in Harry’s world). When contrasted with Dumbledore and Harry’s relationship, Harry’s relationship with Snape, one of derisiveness and mutual hatred, seems far from ideal. This is entirely intentional as Snape is seen as exhibiting behavior consistent with the lower levels of moral processing and thus Rowing would not wish the reader to look up to him as a character. Additionally, rather than focus on behavior and its implications, Dumbledore chooses to focus on the reasoning behind students’ behavior.18 This allows him much more flexibility in rule enforcement; in fact he even encourages Harry and his friends to break the rules on several occasions (such as when Dumbledore allows Hermione to use a 17

Farah Mendelsohn, "Crowning the King: Harry Potter and the Construction of Authority," in The Ivory Tower and Harry Potter: Perspectives on a Literary Phenomenon, ed. Lana A. Whited (Columbia, MI: University of Missouri Press, 2002), 176. 18

Grimes and Whited, "What Would Harry Do? J.K. Rowling and Lawrence Kohlberg's Theories of Moral Development," 197.

10 time travel device for non-academic purposes in The Prisoner of Azkaban), as the reason for such potentially immoral behavior has sound reasoning and ethical principles behind it.19 This Post-Conventional approach to decision making allows Harry to maintain his sense of free will as well as make tough decisions in the face of ambiguity. Harry is able to see, for example, in The Sorcerer’s Stone, when rules do not serve moral principles: “Don’t you understand? If Snape gets hold of the Stone, Voldemort’s coming back… Losing points doesn’t matter anymore, can’t you see?”20 Here, Harry has risen above the personal ramifications of his behavior, such as losing house points, and focuses on how his actions are important for all of wizarding society. Thus, his behavior is consistent with Level III moral processing and universal ethical principles. Universal principles such as these are models for Level III behavior and Rowling idealizes them throughout the series. One of the most visible examples of this is the protection that Harry receives from his mother’s love. Harry’s mother died to save him, and that act of pure love is, in fact, what saved his life and protects him through to Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire.21 As Dumbledore says at the end of The Sorcerer’s Stone, “Quirrel, full of hatred, greed and ambition, and sharing his soul with Voldemort, could not touch you for this reason. It was agony to touch a person marked by something so good.”22 This element of love does not only protect Harry, but also ironically his bully and nemesis, Draco Malfoy: “Lucius and Narcissa Malfoy, who willingly betray the entire Wizarding world to follow Lord Voldemort, appear to have no greater loyalty than to the Dark Lord. But that is only until their loyalty to him clashes with their love for 19

J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Askaban, Harry Potter (New York: Arthur A. Levine Books, 1999). 393-96. 20

Rowling, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone: 270.

21

Rowling, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire: 696.

22

Rowling, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone: 299.

11 their son Draco.”23 The Malfoys betray Voldemort, ultimately resulting in his downfall, so that they might be able to see their son who has been trapped inside Hogwarts during The Battle of Hogwarts in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. The decisions are made based on these universal principles are some of the most important of the series and they seem to serve as an example of morally sound behavior for the reader. In his book, A Theory of Justice, Professor John Rawls of Harvard University connects Kohlberg’s Post-Conventional manner of thinking with social justice. He purports that true justice requires all of society to come from an “original position.”24 This position entails removing all of the lenses through which one looks at society so that one make a decision that can be considered objectively fair. Once an individual removes the “veil of ignorance,” then he/she is able to recognize the viewpoints of others as well as the universal ethical principles within society.25 Of course, this process is not instantaneous and it begins in the Conventional stages of Kohlberg’s scale. Rawls asserts that once an individual becomes aware of the social structures of reciprocity and of their place within society, as in Kohlberg’s Conventional level, and recognized the principles that guide their actions, as in the Post-Conventional level; then they will be able to take up the standpoint of others. In doing so, they will recognize the benefits of social cooperation and equality.26 This developed perspective will inevitably lead to an attitude of distributive or social justice. As the individual progresses through Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, he/she gradually becomes more

23

Moshe Rosenberg, Morality for Muggles: Ethics in the Bible and the world of Harry Potter (Jersey City, NJ: KTAV Publishing House, Inc., 2011). 30. 24

John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999). 17-19.

25

Ibid.

26

Ibid., 402-03.

12 inclined towards just, fair actions and even wishes this justice upon others. As a former employee of Amnesty International, Rowling is herself no stranger to issues of social justice in the world.27 Throughout the Harry Potter series, almost as much emphasis is placed on combatting the evils of social injustice as is placed on the battle against Voldemort. The reason for this is not because she feels one is more important than the other, but rather because they consist of the same battle. Voldemort and his army of Death-eaters are evil because of their mission of ethnic cleansing and racial purity. In some ways, their aims mirror that of the Nazi party. Their wishes are to eradicate all “mudbloods,” or wizards of muggle descent, as well as all half-breeds such as centaurs and the like. In addition, they are intent on subjugating creatures such as giants and house-elves who they view as lesser in some way. By portraying these aims as the ultimate evil, “Rowling intends to teach children that what matters is one’s character, not color, pedigree, or wealth.”28 One of the main ways in which this is depicted is in the acceptance of Hermione Granger into the Hogwarts community as well as the Wizarding community at large. Harry and his friends make a point of defending Hermione despite her non-magical heritage, even suffering physically at the hands of Draco Malfoy to do so.29 The recognition of Hermione’s magical abilities over her origins represents the positive principles that Rowling presents for her audience as unquestionably good. Before looking closer, it is important to recognize the context in which the story of Harry Potter takes place. The Wizarding world is very much a parallel existence to the 27

J. K. Rowling, "About J. K. Rowling," http://www.jkrowling.com/en_GB/#/timeline/amnestyinternational. 28

Elaine Ostry, "Accepting Mudbloods: The Ambivalent Social Vision of J.K. Rowling's Fairy Tales," in Reading Harry Potter: Critical Essays, ed. Giselle Liza Anatol (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), 89-90. 29

Rowling, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets: 112-13.

13 world of muggles (non-magical humans). One of the most recognizable traits in the Harry Potter books is that there is a clear and defined good as well as evil, as the evil characters are the ones who act in such a morally degenerate manner as is equated with children on Kohlberg’s scale. This struggle remains consistent throughout the books and it essentially defines the series. Even though good appears to win in the end, at the very beginning of the series, in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone, Dumbledore, the heaster of Hogwarts and one of Harry’s mentors, warns Harry that the struggle between good and evil is truly endless, “It was important, Dumbledore said, to fight, and fight again, and keep fighting, for only then could evil be kept at bay, though never quite eradicated.”30 Rowling seems to place an emphasis on the value of education in the fight against evil as the series “enlists students on the good side in a cosmic battle against evil… provid[ing] a clear connection between learning and school activities and a larger moral struggle.”31 The existence of good and evil is clearly objective in the Wizarding world and Rowling struggles to impress upon her readers the role of education in combatting such an objective evil. Harry and the gang are also notorious for working alongside with various magical beings, regardless of their origins such as the Centaurs,32 Hagrid the half-giant, and the house-elves, Dobby in particular. Though these beings may not be the main targets for Voldemort’s regime of terror, they are still the subjects of hate, mistreatment, and slavery. In fact, much of the Wizarding community is disdainful towards them regardless of whether they are considered good or evil. Many are even enslaved and are bound to 30

Rowling, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone: 644.

31

Perry L. Glanzer, "Harry Potter's Provocative Moral World: Is There a Place for Good and Evil in Moral Education?," The Phi Delta Kappan 89, no. 7 (2008), http://www.jstor.org/stable/20442552. 32

Rowling, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix: 754-55.

14 service by their masters. This slavery is frowned upon by the protagonists of the series and Hermione, ever the human rights activist, even creates an organization known as S.P.E.W., or the Society for the Promotion of Elfish Welfare in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. Though the organization, particularly its name, is mocked, it is given an inordinate amount of plot time for such a trivial detail. This indicates a larger goal on the part of Rowling. She hints at the similarities between the house-elves and African slaves, especially in North America.33 This similarity is especially apparent in the terrible treatment of Dobby the house-elf by the Malfoy family.34 In fact, Rowling’s use of Harry Potter as a platform for spreading her social agenda is so effective because “she does not lecture, but instead illustrates the effects of prejudice, and portrays it as the mind-set of the most unappealing of characters.”35 By making light of Hermione’s solution to the problem, she in fact makes it more appealing and seem as though it is unquestionably a part of the good fight. Though the series may not posses much literary merit in of sheer quality of writing, the fact is that Rowling’s universe is universally appealing. There is something truly genuine about the characters and the series itself, and it lends itself to the imagination in a unique way. This community is not made up of strictly children either, in fact, “nearly 30 percent of Harry Potter purchases were made for a reader 35 or older.”36 What this wide-ranging audience has done is create a tightly-knit fan community that is not commercially driven, as opposed to that of other novelty children’s 33

Brycchan Carey, "Hermione and the House-Elves: The Literary and Historical Contexts of J.K. Rowling's Antislavery Campaign," in Reading Harry Potter: Critical Essays, ed. Liza Giselle Anatol (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), 104. 34

Rowling, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets: 14.

35

Rosenberg, Morality for Muggles: Ethics in the Bible and the world of Harry Potter: 43.

36

Richard Corliss, "Why 'Harry Potter' did a Harry Houdini," Time Magazine(July 21, 2000), http://archives.cnn.com/2000/books/news/07/21/potter7_21.a.tm/.

15 communities such as for Pokemon or the Disney Princesses. These fans do not just read the books, but they challenge and analyze beyond questions or plot points explicitly laid out by the books themselves. These are kids and adults who are dedicated to the culture of Harry Potter and genuinely want to learn from it.37 This drive to learn and analyze is what makes Rowling’s message so effective. By intertwining morally complex historical events with a fantastical world where morality may seem much more clear, Rowling provides an environment in which she can more easily convey her messages about morality and values in a clear-cut, yet relevant, manner. The books take place from 1991 to 1998, which makes perfect contextual sense, especially from a British perspective: “The decade was a period of both economic growth and greater disparities between the richest and poorest of society. It was also a time of social tensions and dislocations related to each development.”38 This is not the only time that events in the series line up with reality, as the Great Wizarding War between Grindelwald, another evil wizard, and the rest of the Wizarding community coincides perfectly with World War II and there is an implied correlation between the two. This meshing of realities plays into what makes this book so realistic and what makes her message come across as a true illustration for model behavior. Through Harry’s story, Rowling creates a rich world in which millions of children have fantasized about living. Though this is due in part to the relatability of many of the main characters, it also has to do with the extensiveness of the world that Rowling created along with the story. The genius part about her universe is that it intertwines creatures, characters, 37

Rebecca Sutherland Borah, "Apprentice Wizards Welcome: Fan Communities and the Culture of Harry Potter," in The Ivory Tower and Harry Potter: Perspectives on a Literary Phenomenon, ed. Lana A. Whited (Columbia, MI: University of Missouri Press, 2002), 360. 38

Edmund M. Kern, The Wisdom of Harry Potter: What our Favorite Hero Teaches Us about Moral Choices (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2003). 188.

16 legends, and history from a huge range of sources into a universe that is wholly fantastical, yet grounded in reality. The scope of this universe is truly enormous, ranging from Arthurian characters such as Merlin, to the Banshee of Scottish folklore, to the reallife alchemist Nicholas Flamel. Historical concepts such as the Sorcerer’s stone are effortlessly absorbed into the world of wands and flying broomsticks that it is often hard to tell what has its basis in history and what does not. In addition, the setting of the story itself is far enough in the past to feel somewhat distant, yet recent enough to be relevant. Though Rowling probably never intended for the Harry Potter series to become nearly as successful as it did, that doesn’t really matter. The values that are represented in the very first book remain consistent throughout the entire series. It is extremely important to recognize the value that these books hold as they have influenced multiple generations in addition to changing the face of children’s literature forever. The Harry Potter books contain within them a clear example of moral development through the framework laid out by Lawrence Kohlberg. Rowling clearly indicates through the separation between good and evil that the Post-Conventional levels should be the ideal behavior and that they will lead to social justice. Whether they manifest themselves in the Wizarding society, through the relationships that are highlighted, or through Harry’s personal values and actions, more than 450 million people have been touched and, most likely, influenced by what an aspiring author had to say about her vision for the values of a just society.39

39

"Harry Potter News," The New York Times(2011).

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Mendelsohn, Farah. "Crowning the King: Harry Potter and the Construction of

18 Authority." In The Ivory Tower and Harry Potter: Perspectives on a Literary Phenomenon, edited by Lana A. Whited. Columbia, MI: University of Missouri Press, 2002. Ostry, Elaine. "Accepting Mudbloods: The Ambivalent Social Vision of J.K. Rowling's Fairy Tales." In Reading Harry Potter: Critical Essays, edited by Giselle Liza Anatol. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003. Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999. Rosenberg, Moshe. Morality for Muggles: Ethics in the Bible and the World of Harry Potter. Jersey City, NJ: KTAV Publishing House, Inc., 2011. Rowling, J. K. "About J. K. Rowling." In., http://www.jkrowling.com/en_GB/#/timeline/amnesty-international. ———. "Biography." In., http://www.jkrowling.com. ———. Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. Harry Potter. New York: Arthur A. Levine Books, 1999. ———. Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. Harry Potter. New York: Arthur A. Levine Books, 2007. ———. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. Harry Potter. New York: Arthur A. Levine Books, 2000. ———. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. Harry Potter. New York: Arthur A. Levine Books, 2005. ———. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Harry Potter. New York: Arthur A. Levine Books, 2003. ———. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Askaban. Harry Potter. New York: Arthur A. Levine Books, 1999. ———. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone. Harry Potter. Paperback ed. New York: Scholastic, Inc, 1998. "Rowling Looking into Harry Potter E-Books." ABC News, April 4 2011.