Amie Society And Environment Notes 3e244o

Society and Environment Page 1 Notes Long type Answers: • Explain in brief some of the major aspects of development. Ans: Development is a total transformation of society and a movement in consciously chosen direction. There is no straight and linear progress from traditional to modern society, and neither is this transition smooth. Development is a complex one and involves several aspects: (1) Political development. (2) Social development. (3) Economic development (4.) Intellectual development. (1) Political development .: The first requirement of political development is a high degree of role of specialization (and differentiation) of political institutions and the growth of communication media. Political parties, trade unions, religious organizations, pressure groups and other similar organizations represent functional differentiation. In the second place, there is greater emphasis on rational, scientific and secular techniques for decision making. The developed system acquires an impersonal character in which the law becomes more important than the whims of men in power. (2) Social development. When a traditional society is developed, there is a marked shifting of population from rural areas to urban centers under the impact of industrialization, which is one of the main agents of development In addition to migration to cities and towns, the growth of technology gradually reduces the percentage of the population engaged in agriculture. Social development brings about a marked change in the outlook and behavior of social groups which are characterized by the functions they perform rather than by their caste, language and other such factors, With the growth of social development, the individual finds himself in a wider world of freedom in which there are fewer restrictions on his ability to take decision affecting his life. He is free to choose his own career rather than have it determined on the basis of his caster (3) Economic Development Economic development also known as "economic growth" covers many aspects of social life. In the first place, it involves the systematic application of science and technology to the processes of production and distribution of goods and services. Secondly, it compels increasing use of inanimate sources of energy in contrast to the use of human or animal energy in traditional societies. This change in the pattern of energy consumption can only be sustained by a evolution in the consumption patterns of the masses demanding diversification of production in response to varied consumer needs. Diversified consumer needs lead to a high degree of specialization in production techniques and labor skills. Rationality in economic decisions (in determining the location of industry, for example) results in increased mobility of labor and emergence of a vast variety of market processor. (4.) Intellectual development. : Development cannot be sustained for long in any society without a corresponding and selfsustaining intellectual development characterized by constantly increasing knowledge. This involves the existence of adequate number of fact-finding and data-processing agencies, statistical units, Research and development laboratories, universities and similar institutions. Intellectual development implies the existence of intellectual elites who play a key role in sustaining the growth of technology. Intellectual development leads, in all political systems, to greater emphasis on secularism and on secularization of the process of government and bureaucracy'. It also leads to an increasing emphasis on strengthening the material basis of life. • List the impediments to development. Explain these in brief. Ans: There are several impediments to development of a traditional society. Some of the obstacles are: (1) Lack of skills. (2) Rigid istrative system. (3) Impatience for rapid development. (4) ion for quantitative expansion. (5) Premature politicization. (6) Strain on law and order resources. (7) Rapid growth of population. (1) Lack of skills: The developing countries are usually weak in the skills required for development. The real problem in training personnel for development programs lies not in unparting information to them, but in helping them to develop the required skills. It is necessary, to give field workers and s more freedom to experiment and to try new approaches; but this is precisely where the Indian programs suffer. (2)Rigid istrative System: In India arid in many other Commonwealth countries, the istrative system inherited from the British rule leaves little room for freedom to experiment. The inherited bureaucracy with its outmoded procedures of work and personal attitudes, inadequate delegation at all levels, too formal supervision of field workers and poor morale provide a major impediment. f3J Impatience for Rapid Development It arises from the belief that a country must embark on all areas of development at one time. This has led, among other things, to symbolic expenditure on big projects to convince the masses and the outside world of the country's determination to become a modern nation in the shortest possible period of time. Many poor countries have spent huge money on nuclear research even though the basic amenities of life remain unprovided for a high percentage of their population.

(3) Impatience for rapid development. It arises from the belief that a country must embark on all areas of development at one time. This has led, among other things, to symbolic expenditure on big projects to convince the masses and the outside world of the country's determination to become a modern nation in the shortest possible period of time. Many poor countries have spent huge money on nuclear research even though the basic amenities of life remain unprovided for a high percentage of their population. (4) ion for Quantitative Expansion Another obstacle arises from the ion for a rapid quantitative expansion without attention to quality. Apart from community development, education has very rapidly expanded in India since independence and new universities and colleges have mushroomed under local pressure. The result of this expansion has been pumping into the society a vast army of unemployed graduates. (5) Premature Politicization : The political leadership in developing countries has a marked tendency to politicize the mass prematurely. The large number of students and unemployed youths, often recruited by various political parties, contribute to the restlessness of the political process. (6) Strain on Low and Order Resources : Politicization of the mass results in considerable strain on the law and order resources of the state. The leadership in India has done very little since independence for rehabilitating the police in the popular mind as protectors of the law. Attitude formed in the popular mind towards police in the era of our freedom struggle has not yet died but has produced a certain ambivalence towards the police. As a result, investment in improvement and strengthening of the police department has appeared to our leadership as being in some way contrary to the spirit of democratic welfare. (7) Rapid Growth of Population: Rapidly growing population is one of the major impediments to the development of a traditional society. Rapid population growth usually results from the improvement in the general conditions of the mass, better health-care facility and decline in morality. A high rate of population growth offsets the economic growth of a country. This leads to frustration, social tension and mass violence

Page 2 Notes 4.3 Define and explain a under-developed economy. What are the basics Characteristics of under-developed countries? Ans: According to the "United Nations Experts Committee," an under- Pr -7 developed country is one whose per capita real income is low when compared with the per capita real income of the US, Canada, Australia and Western Europe. According to Prof. Ragnar Nurkse , "the under-developed countries are those which, compared with the advanced countries, are underequipped with capital in relation to their population and natural resources". Even this defination is not fully satisfactory. The Indian Planning Commissionhas defined an under-developed country as one "which is characterized by the coexistence, in greater or lesser degree, of unutilized or under-utilized manpower on the one hand and of unexploded natural resources on the other". According to Colin Clark , who was one of the pioneers in the studies of under-developed economies, "economic development consists in the progressive enlargement of tertiary occupations in the economy". According to this definition, under-developed economies are those in which the primary occupations predominate. In current literature, all countries with low per capita income are generally classified as under-developed. In general, all countries with per capita income less than 10% of that of the US (31,910 US dollars) may be regarded as under developed countries. India , with a per capita income of 2,230 US dollars, is one of the most under-developed countries in the world. Some of the basic common characteristics are mention below: (1) Low per capita income (2) Deficiency of capita (3) Excessive dependence on Agriculture (4) Rapid Growth of Population (5) Large –scale Unemployment (6) Under-Utilization of Resources (7) Foreign Trade Orientation (8) Low Levels of Skill. 4.5 "International trade plays an important role in economic development''-Justify the statement. Ans: International trade plays a very important role in economic development since it allows a country to escape from its own limitations of natural and human resources and concentrates its efforts in the areas in which it has a genuine advantage. If there were no international trades, a developing country would have to grow on all fronts simultaneously. In that case, its growth could be seriously impaired by the limitations of natural resources and acquired human skills in many areas. A country bent on growing through an industrialization policy may benefit if it can concentrate at first on light manufacturing and exporting consumer goods in return for capital goods made by heavy industries in more developed countries. In this way, a developing country can gain many of the benefits of more efficient production that it could not hope to match for a long time to come. Among the other advantages of specialization that international trade makes possible are the opportunities to take advantage of the economy of scale by producing far more goods than would be required to meet the domestic demand in a state of self-sufficiency. A further advantage that may be significant for a developing country is often called the advantage of "learning by doing". On the other hand, economic growth with a heavy dependence on the foreign trade often brings in the serious problem of the balance of payments in a world of fixed exchange rates. In a developing country, capital goods are often one of the main limitations to growth. In a closed economy, the problem of scarce capital appears as a resource problem since there are not enough resources to produce capital goods at a rate as fast as desired. In an open economy the same problem appears as a foreign exchange problem since there is not enough foreign exchange to buy all the imported capital goods that are desired for faster economic growth. In both cases, the problem is the same, i.e., it is very difficult to obtain a desired level of capital goods. One way is to make the capital goods at home; the other way is to make consumer

goods at home and then sell them abroad in exchange for capital goods. A second problem in a developing country is related to the import of consumer goods, if the country's economy is an open one. As the country's productivity rises, disposable income and the standard of living also rise. In many developing countries, the goods produced at home are mainly in the necessity class with low margins of profit, whereas imported goods tend to have a higher profit margin. In such a situation, the rise in income that accompanies economic growth brings with it a shift in the pattern of consumer demand, with a larger proportion of consumers opting for the purchase of imported goods. Unless something happens to offset this shift in consumer demand, economic growth can be accompanied by an increasingly severe problem of the balance of payments. This problem can be offset in two ways. The first way is for the country to develop export commodities with rapidly expanding demand for them in foreign countries. In this case, the exports can expand rapidly to match the increasing imports. A second way is for its domestic growth to take place partly in the sec-called "import-substitute" industries. Growth of industries that compete with Imports can keep the rapidly expanding demand for luxury goods from being translated into an equally rapidly expanding demand for their imports. • Write a brief note on interrelationship between social, economic and scientific factors. Ans : Economic development is hardly possible without social change, and science, engineering and technology are the most important factors for changing a traditional society into a modern and developed one. Engineering is the ( I applied science and technology is the applied engineering. This clearly shows that social, economic and scientific factors for development are highly interrelated. Technology, arising from scientific research followed by technological development, has been a prime mover m creating the kind of world in which we live today. From the shaping of the first stone tools, the discovery of the wheel, the lever and the plough and learning the use of fire, man has assiduously shaped science to serve his material needs. Science, therefore, is not a new phenomenon! What is different today is that the discover of natural laws through scientific research has given a new dimension to technology. As a result, technology now has such a massive impart on our lives that it offers on the one hand an almost infinite promise to relieve poverty and provide healthy conditions of life, but on the other hand it also threatens our pattern of life, the global ecology and even the Survival of the human race.

Page 3 Notes • Explain the role of science and technology in development. Ans: In order to appreciate properly the rationale and relevance of adopting science and technology for development, it is necessary to draw a distinction between the two "science" and "technology". As explained earlier, science and technology are closely related and highly interdependent. Policy for them, however, has to be distinct. Science is the result of man's restless quest to comprehend the phenomena of nature. By its very nature, development of science requires a long-term planning. No schedule of time can be fixed in advance for achieving a scientific breakthrough. Technology, on the other hand, is product or process specific and not universal. Unlike science, technologies are not widely publicized and generally, not open to outsiders. The inventor guards the secrets of his technological breakthrough by getting a patent on it and thus preventing others from using the process developed by him. The possession of the patent on a technological development gives monopoly rights to the patent holder to derive commercial benefits from it for a fixed period. Technology is an essential input in all decisions relating to production in all sectors of the economy. As a result, technology is amenable to time-bound programs, policies, strategies and planning on a continuing basis. All plans contain some specific projects with some technological contents in them. Projects launched for national development have to be ed by appropriate technological inputs that would improve productivity of both men and materials. In the process of modernization, a country has to assimilate its own indigenous technology as well as the relevant imported technology. India has been doing so ever since it launched its ambitious five-year Plans. The role which relevant technology can play in improving productivity can be clearly seen from the experience of Punjab . Subsistence agriculture in Punjab was transformed into a commercial one, particularly after the Green Revolution in the 1960s, through the application of technology. 4.8 Write a note on the obstacles to Transfer of Technology . Ans : If the experience of the industrialized countries has been that science and technology have been ma)or instruments for their economic development, one would assume that the same should be true for developing countries too. Certainly, great advances have been made in developing countries by the direct transfer of technology from advanced countries. For example, communications now form a worldwide network; certain devastating diseases like malaria, smallpox and tuberculosis have been controlled; and agriculture in the third world countries has made rapid progress by the use of fertilizers and high-yielding varieties of seeds. The relative failure of the process of technology transfer is due to many causes, in addition to the lack of indigenous scientific and technological capacity. The profit motive of the donors of technology does not always harmonize with the basic needs of the receivers. Other causes of the failure of technology transfer lie in the social and political factors in the recipient nations. Another difficulty is the scarcity of capital. Also, some technologies are energy-intensive. In most Third World countries, unemployment and underemployment are widespread and, therefore, capital-intensive technologies are not suitable to them. Another obstacle to successful transfer of technology is the insufficient local availability of the necessary technical and managerial skills. At present, the main political debate with regard to the use of science and technology for development is concentrated on the transfer process itself, and on the improvement in the access of advanced technology to the developing countries. The arguments used in the debate are highly politicized and centre around the effectiveness and motivation of the multinational

corporations (MNCs) as the main agents of technology transfer. The MNCs are needed by the developing countries, but they are not encouraged. It is necessary that the multinationals and the developing countries come to . The multinational corporations will have to be encouraged to establish lasting relationship with the host country. The multinationals, as a matter of self-interest, will have to learn to balance the need for next year's profits with their long-term survival in the host country. • Explain the role of science and technology in rural development. Ans: Application of science and technology for rural development has acquired a special significance in India 's development programs. Rural people occupy the pivotal position in the context of anti-poverty programs. It has been well recognized that the physical resources alone are not the only constraint for development. Even if physical resources are available, their inefficient-utilization can result in under-development. Thus, science and technology assume a greater significance in the context of rural development since they can increase the efficiency of resource utilization. The areas of economy, which can be substantially influenced through the adoption of science and technology, can be grouped under production and development. Production efficiency in respect of the rural people relates to the following two aspects: (1) Increasing efficiency of resource use for productive enterprise taken up by the rural people, either individually or uncooperative groups. (2) Increasing efficiency of labor that the rural people provide to the economy through skill development. Developments in science and technology can be fruitfully utilized for rural development through an improvement in the production efficiency of investment resources as well as that of the rural labor force, conservation of resources used by them and improvement in their health and living conditions. A great deal of effort has gone into the application of science and technology for rural development, but it has not yet produced desired results. While some technologies appropriate for rural development have been developed, their combined package (innovation, adoption, utilization, human resources, raw materials and marketing) has not made substantial change in the productivity, income and living condition of the rural people in general. The objectives should be: (1) Development of technologies appropriate to rural areas in the existing Socioeconomic context of both producers and their customers. (2) A "delivery system" or methodology to ensure the self-sustaining adoption and utilization of these technologies. (3) Maximization of their benefits to the rural poor.

Page 4 Notes • Define planning. What are its characteristics? Ans: Defination of planning given by Prof. Dickinson. According to him, "Economic planning is the making of ma)or economic decisions - what and how much is to be produced; how, when and where it is to be produced and to whom it is to be allocated - by the conscious decision of a comprehensive survey of the system as a whole". Prof. Loucks defines planning as "the shaping of all economic activities into group-defined spheres of action, which are rationally mapped out and fitted, as parts of a mosaic, into a coordinated whole, for the purpose of achieving certain nationally conceived and socially comprehensive goals. There are three important characteristics of planning. In the first place, there is a definite planning authority, whether it be the government or another body specially constituted like the Planning Commission in India . This planning authority is entrusted with the task of surveying the resource of the country, fixing up targets and laying down the methods for reaching these targets. If the government itself is the planning body, it also executes the plan thus formulated. It is not necessary that the planning authority should have supreme or dictatorial powers. It may be dictatorial, or it may work subject to the democratic control of a parliament as in India . It may even delegate some of its powers to other agencies, but the plans of all such agencies taken together must fit into the common pattern laid down by the planning authority. The second characteristic of planning is that the decisions are based on a survey of the economy as a whole. The planning authority acquires comprehensive knowledge of all resources that the economy possesses. Moreover, it keeps in view the needs and requirements of the economy as a whole, and not merely of some particular sectors of it, when it allocates the resources for various uses. In third place, the planning authority deliberately takes decisions with regard to the use to which various resources in the economy are put in. The economic life of the country concerned is not left to mere chance, or to the working of free competition. Planning implies the conscious and deliberate choice of economic priorities by the planning authority. Anunplanned economy is characterized by the absence of these three characteristics. In an unplanned society, each individual is free, within such legal limits as may be laid down by the state, to make use of the resources at his command in the manner he thinks best. Naturally, he does not take a comprehensive view of the economy as a whole. He has, at his command, only a part of the total resources of the community. He uses these resources in such a way as to make the largest profit for himself, without any thought of the effects of his actions on others or on the economy of the country as a whole 4·12 Explain the objectives of planning. Ans : The objectives of planning, however, are not the same for all countries, nor are they the same for any country at all times. What precisely arc the objectives of planning depend on the stage of economic development of the country

concerned, the socio-economic conditions prevalent there at the time of planning, and the requirements for a particular situation. Keeping the broad objective of accelerating economic growth and of raising the standard of living of the people, the major objectives may be listed as follows: (1) Achieving full employment. (2) Maximizing national income and raising living standards. (3) Rapid industrialization. (4) Achieving self-sufficiency m food and raw materials. (5) Reducing inequalities. (6) Redressing unbalances in the economy. It may be noted, however, that these objectives are interrelated and complementary, and not mutually exclusive of one another. (1) Achieving Full Employment: One of the major objectives of planning especially in economically advanced countries is to provide full employment to its citizens. Unemployment is one of the by-products of capitalism, and is considered by many to be the biggest curse of a modern capitalist society. In order to end unemployment, the development plans are directed to those directions and those sectors of the economy where there is more unemployment. Towards this end, the state can redistribute the labor force and productive resources, and thus create more jobs in those sectors. Planning in a developing country like India may not be able to create the conditions for full employment in the near future, but it can reduce the incidence of unemployment. (2) Maximizing National Income: Another laudable objective of economic planning is to maximize the national income and to raise the living standard of the people. The planners pursue this objective relentlessly. The reason is that only planned efforts can raise the national income appreciably. The unplanned development efforts do not bring any substantial progress in this direction since the productive efforts are frittered away in an uncoordinated economic activity. (3) Rapid Industrialization: This objective assumes more importance in the case of those countries which have been left behind in the race for industrialization, it has been realized that industrialization plays a very important role in raising the national income and in solving the problem of unemployment, it is difficult for a country to achieve prosperity by merely confining itself to agriculture. The economies, which are predominantly agricultural, are bound to remain backward unless attention is paid to industrialization. (4) Achieving self-sufficiency: As a first step towards more systematic and intensive planning, it is important to make the country self-sufficient in the matter of food and essential raw materials. This self-sufficiency provides a solid base for the country and prepares it for further development through industrialization. If a country is not self-sufficient in the matter of food and raw materials, mere political freedom may prove to be a myth. (5) Reducing Inequalities: It is generally realized that political equality is meaningless unless it is accompanied by economic equality. Glaring inequalities of wealth, income and opportunities are against the spirit of democracy. Bridging the gulf between the rich and the poor is one of the most important objectives of planning. (6) Redressing Imbalances in the Economy: Often it is found that the economic development in a country is lopsided. An economy, for example, may be predominantly agricultural, or it may depend too much on the export of oil or minerals. In our own country, nearly 75% of the people are dependent on agriculture and related activities. This is an example of an unbalanced economy. To lend stability to the economy, it becomes essential to reduce this imbalance. If there are such imbalances in the economy of a country, removing them becomes an important objective of planning. In addition, there is usually a regional imbalance in respect of industrialization in many of the developing countries. When this is the case, the plans are aimed to correct such regional imbalances too.

Page 5 Notes • Define Science, Engineering and Technology. Ans: Science, engineering and technology are the most important factors for changing a traditional society into a modern and developed one. Engineering is the, I applied science and technology is the applied engineering. This clearly shows that social, economic and scientific factors for development are highly interrelated. Technology, arising from scientific research followed by technological development, has been a prime mover m creating the kind of world in which we live today. From the shaping of the first stone tools, the discovery of the wheel, the lever and the plough and learning the use of fire, man has assiduously shaped science to serve his material needs. Science, therefore, is not a new phenomenon! What is different today is that the discover of natural laws through scientific research has given a new dimension to technology. As a result, technology now has such a massive impart on our lives that it offers on the one hand an almost infinite promise to relieve poverty and provide healthy conditions of life, but on the other hand it also threatens our pattern of life, the global ecology and even the survival of the human race. • Define the "rate of population growth". Ans : The rate of population growth is given by the difference between the birth rate and death rate of a country. • What is the most effective method of population control? Ans : The most effective method of population control is the spread of education. To a very large extent, the qualitative aspect of a country's population is determined bye the level of literacy. The higher the rate of literacy, the higher is the contribution of population to economic and social development. • What is the range of capital-output ratio for the developing countries?

Ans : The ratio determines the rate at which the output of a country grows as a result of a given volume of the capital investment. A lower capital-output ratio leads to a comparatively higher rate of the growth of output as a result of a given volume of capital investment. • What is the meaning of "planning by direction" ? Ans : The government may also influence the supply and / or demand of various commodities, and thus increase or decrease their production , consumption and price. The first of these methods (issue of orders, imposition of controls, etc.) is known as “ planning by direction” while the second method (use of fiscal and monetary policy) is called “Planning by inducement”. 4.19 Define "Plan Holiday ". Ans: Since the Third five-year Plan had gone away, the process of planning itself became discredited in the eyes of many people. As a result, there were demands from many different quarters to declare a Plan Holiday . 4.20 What is a Rolling Plan? Ans: The new pattern of planning was laid down as the Rolling Plan , which implied that the performance of the Plan was to be assessed every year, and a new Plan based on this assessment would be prepare for the next year. 4.21 During which five-year Plan period, maximum emphasis was laid On steel industries? Ans: Second plan (1956-61) laid special emphasis on heavy industries like steel 4.22 What is Green Revolution? Ans : 4.23 When was the slogan "Garibi Hatao" given ? Ans: The Fifth Plan attempted to coordinate various sectors of the economy in of he new slogan Garibi Hatao (“ Remove the poverty”) 4.24 Pre-machine technology includes : (a) Basket weaving (b) Pottery making (c) Only (a) (c) Both . 4.25 Functional differentiation is represented by: (a) Trade unions (b) Political parties (c) Both (d) Neither. 4.26 Match the following: (A) Bharat Ratna Sir (B) Mixed economy M.Visvesvaraya (B) India (C) High Mass consumption (C) (D) Under-developed economy (D) Colin Clark (A) Planned Economy for India 4.27 Write true or false: The caste system allows vertical social mobility.- False The caste system did not allows vertical social mobility. 4.28 Write true or false Advertising is an important aspect of economic development. — True 4.29 Name the odd ones; (a) Economic instability (b) Multinational corporations (c) Uneven distribution of wealth (d) Economic backwardness.

Page 6 Notes 4.30 Fill up the blanks: Some of the impediments to development are: Lack of skill, Rigid istrative system ., Impatience for rapid development .; And premature politicization.

CHAPTER-6 ENVORONMENT • Give most suitable definitions of "environment" and "environmental pollution". What is a pollutant as defined by the Government of India in its Environmental Protection Act (1986)? Ans : Earth is the only planet where other living beings have evolved because of the availability of all the ingredients such as air, water, food, energy, etc., which are essential for life. These together constitute the environment . The environment can be defined as one's surroundings Environmental pollution may be broadly defined as "adding to the environment a potentially hazardous substance or source of energy faster than the rate at which the environment can accommodate it". Alternately, environmental pollution may also be defined as: "An undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, water and land that may be or will be harmful to human life and other living organisms, living conditions, industrial progress and cultural assets and will deteriorate raw material resources". In brief, one may define the environmental pollution as "an unfavourable alteration of environment largely as a result of human activities". A pollutant is a substance that affects adversely or alters the environment by changing the growth rate of species, interferes with the food chain, health, comfort and amenities of the people and is toxic. In the Environment Protection Act (1986), ed by the Government of India, an environmental pollutant is defined as : "Any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such concentration as may be or tends to be injurious to the environment and the environmental pollution means the presence in the environment of any environmental pollutant". • Write brief notes on atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. Ans : The global environment consists of atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere in which the life-sustaining resources of the earth are contained. The atmosphere , which is a mixture of various gases (mainly nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour) extending outward from the surface of the earth, evolved from the elements of the earth that were gasified during its formation. The hydrosphere consists of oceans, lakes and streams and shallow ground water bodies. The lithosphere , on the other hand, is the soil mantle that wraps the core of the earth. (The biosphere, a thin layer that encapsulates (enclose in) the earth, is made up of atmosphere and lithosphere adjacent to the surface of the earth, together with hydrosphere It is within the biosphere that all the life-forms of earth live. Life-sustaining materials in solid, liquid and gaseous forms are cycled through biosphere, giving sustenance to all the living organisms. Life-sustaining resources, air, water and food, are withdrawn from the biosphere. • State air pollution as defined by the W.H.O. List the major causes of air pollution. Ans : The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined air pollution as "the presence of materials in the air in such concentration which are harmful to man and his environment". In addition to industries, there are various other sources of air pollution in India, e.g., domestic combustion of low-grade fuels, fine dusts contributed by the deserts and other open and dry fields and human activities causing heavy pollution of the urban air (with suspended particulate matters and exhaust from motor vehicles). The main pollutants of air are carbon monoxide sulphur dioxide,oxides of nitrogen,carbon dioxide and particulates. Air pollution affects growth,living and life of humans, plants, organisms and all other living beings. • What are the major sources of water pollution ? Explain in brief. Ans : Water pollution may be defined as "the addition of substances (organic, inorganic, biological or radiological) or factors (e.g., heat) which degrade the quality of water so that either it becomes a health hazard or unfit for use” The major sources of water pollution are: (1) Domestic. (2) Industrial wastes. (3) agricultural chemical (4) Excess heat (from nuclear power plants, for example) (5) Oil spills (from tankers or coastal oil wells).

Page 7 Notes 6.5 Explain in brief the environmental ethic. Ans : The word "ethic" is derived from the Greek work "ethos", which means the character of a person as defined by his actions. This character has been developed during the evolutionary process and has been influenced by the need for adopting to the environment. The "ethic", in short governs our way of doing things and this is a direct result of our environment. Ecology and economics are on a collision course now. The conflict between the ecologists and economists has been aptly summarized by Kenneth Boulding: "Ecology is uneconomic. But with another kind of logic, Economy is unecologic". In the ecological context, maladaptation to the environment by an organism results in two options: (1) The organism dies out or (2) The organism evolves to a form and character where it is once again compatible with the environment. The acceptable option is one in which we must learn to share, in an equitable manner, our vast but finite natural resources to regain a balance. This requires that our needs be reduced and that the materials that we do use must be replenishable. The recognition of the need for such adaptation as a means of survival has developed into what we now call the "environmental ethic". The birth of environmental ethic as a force is partly a result of our concern for our own long-term survival, as well as our realization that humans are but one form of life and that we should share our earth with our fellow travelers. Environmental ethic is not a religion since it is based not only on faith, but also on hard facts and through analysis. The environmental ethic is very new and none of the doctrine is cast in immutable decrees and dogmas. Education of the public to environmental problems and solutions is of prime importance. • Explain the role of an Environmental Engineer. Ans : As pollutants enter air, water or soil, natural processes such as dilution, bio -degradation and chemical reactions convert waste materials to more acceptable forms and disperse them through a larger volume. However, these natural processes can no longer perform the clean-up alone due to the enormous amount of wastes generated now. The waste treatment facilities designed by the environmental engineer are mostly based on the principles of self-cleansing observed in nature, but the engineered processes amplify and optimize the operations observed in nature to handle larger volumes of pollutants and to treat them more rapidly. Environmental engineers adapt the principles of natural mechanisms to engineered systems for pollution control when : (1) they construct tall stacks to disperse and dilute air pollutants, (2) design biological treatment facilities for the removal of organic materials from waste water, (3) use chemicals to oxidize and precipitate iron and manganese in drinking water supplies, or (4) bury solid wastes in sanitary land-fill operations. Occasionally, the environmental engineer must also design to counteract or even reverse natural processes (Objective/Short Type) • List major four natural needs of mankind. Ans : Human beings used natural resources are air, water, food and shelter. • List major four acquired needs of mankind. Ans : acquired needs : automobiles, appliances, processed food and beverage • A pollutant may be: (a) Biodegradable (b) Toxic (c) Only (b) (d) Both. 6.10 Match the following: (A) Agricultural wastes - D (a) Air pollution (B) Catalytic converter - A (b) Motor vehicles (C) Incinerators - B (c) Nonbiodegradable (D) Pesticides - C (d) Soil pollution • Write true or false: • Domestic sewage has mainly biodegradable pollutants . –FALSE Ans : Domestic sewage has mainly non -biodegradable pollutants .

• Name the odd ones: ( a) Poverty (b) Economic growth (c) Population (d) Pollution . • Fill up the blanks : The global environment consists of atmosphere hydrosphere and lithosphere.

Page 8 Notes MODEL QUESTIONS (Essay/Long type) • What are the six classes of the components of the ecosystem? Describe in brief. Ans : a) components of Eco-system There are two components (parts) of an Eco-system. • Biotic : .They are living organisms. They are distinguished on the basis of their nutritional relationships. The organisms living, on the land masses are different from those in sea-water. Climate condition bring about variations in the types of plants and animals found in different land masses. • Abiotic : They are non-biological of Eco-System. They influence the living organism in the area. They are also called non-living components of the Eco-system. Examples are chemical substances found in the soil, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and minerals like phosphates, nitrates or organic materials like carbohydrates, fats, proteins and vitamins. Other abiotic elements of the climate are temperature, rain fall, duration of sunlight, winds ,nature of soil, slope of the land, composition of the bodies, etc. The six classes of an Eco-system are as follows : • Primary consumers. Herbivores feeding on plants. Example : Rabbit etc. • Secondary consumers : carnivores feeding on animals. Examples : Lion 3) Tertiary consumers : Omnivores feeding both plants and animals. Example ; man 4) Consumers of decomposed tissues of plants. . Decomposers, Example: bacteria and fungi. • Nutrients in soil and water. • Energy from sun and from photosynthesis. • Describe the ecosystem with reference to a pond as an example. Ans : A pond is a good example of a small, fresh - water, aquatic ecosystem, which is self-sufficient and self-regulating. In fact, one of the best ways to start the study of ecology is to study a small pond, where all the basic components of an ecosystem can be conveniently examined. Abiotic Components : The Abiotic components of a pond ecosystem consist of the physical and chemical parameters of pond water such as color, odour, taste, turbidity, electrical conductivity, temperature, pH (hydrogen ion concentration), suspended solids, dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), nitrate, sulphate, phosphate, chloride, etc., and certain minerals like sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, nickel, cobalt, lead, mercury and arsenic. Water samples can be collected from the pond and ail the above-mentioned physico-chemical parameters can be determined in a well-equipped laboratory. Biotic Components : In a pond, the auto-trophic (self-nourishing) green plants and some species of photosynthetic bacteria are the producers . The green plants are mainly the macrophytes and phytoplanktons present in the pond water. The macrophytes are the rooted larger plants, which may be partly or completely submerged, emergent or free-floating. The phytoplanktons, on the other hand, are extremely small, floating or suspended lower plants. Diatoms form a major part of phytoplakton ok. Other types of phytoPlanktons are the green algae such as oscillatoria, volvox, spirogyra, etc. In a pond, the majority of consumers are the herbivores. There are also a few insects and fishes which are carnivores. They depend on herbivores for their food. The primary consumers are either benthos or zooplarlktons (microscopic anirnals). Benthos are the organisms present at the bottom of the pond, but some are associated with the living plants. The common examples of benthos are fishes, beetles or insect larvae. Zooplanktons are mainly rotifers, protozoans and crustaceans. They feed on phytoplanktons. Some fishes, insects and frogs come under the category of secondary consumers . They feed on zooplanktons or on small fishes. The large fishes that eat small fishes and water snakes that feed on fishes come under the category of tertiary consumers . In a pond, there are some microorganisms that decompose the dead and decaying bodies of both consumers and producers. They are known as decomposers . Some bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes belong to this category of the biotic components of a pond. Their main function is to bring about the decomposition of dead and decaying organisms of the pond ecosystern. Thus, within the small area of a pond, all the important feature of an ecosystern can be observed.

Page 9 Notes

• Write a critical note on the principles of ecobalance. Ans : By its very nature, ecology is a rnultidisciplinary science. It involves plant and animal biology, taxonomy, physiology, genetics, behavioral science, meteorology, pedology, geology, sociology, anthropology, physics, chemistry, mathematics and electronics. Often, it is very difficult to draw a sharp line between ecology and any of the above disciplines since all impinge on it. Exactly the same situation exists also within ecology, In order to understand the interactions between the organism and the environment, or between organisms, it is often difficult to separate behavior from physiology, adaptation from evolution and genetics, or animal ecology from plant ecology. Historically, ecology developed along two lines, viz., the study of plants (plant ecology) and the study of animals ( animal ecology ). Plant ecology focuses on the relationship of plants to other plants and their environment. The approach of plant ecology is largely descriptive of the vegetational and floristic composition of an area and usually ignores the influence of animals on the plants. Animal ecology, deals with the study of population dynamics, population distribution, animal behavior and the relationships of animals and their environment. Because animals depend upon plants for food and shelter, animal ecology cannot be fully understood without a considerable background of plant ecology. This is particularly true in the areas of applied ecology like wildlife management. Both plant and animal ecology may be approached as the study of the interrelations of an individual organism with its environment ( autecology ), or as the study of groups of organisms ( synecology ). In many ways, autecology is the classical study of ecology, which is experimental and inductive. Because autecology is usually concerned with the relationship of an organism to one or more variables like humidity, light, salinity or nutrient levels, it is easily quantified and lends itself to experimental design both in the laboratory and in the field. Autocology has, therefore, borrowed experimental techniques from physics, chemistry and physiology. Synecology, is philosophical and deductive in nature. It is largely descriptive and not easily quantified. Some of the important concepts developed by synecology are those concerned with nutrient cycles, energy budgets and ecosystern developments. Synecology has strong ties with geology, meteorology and cultural anthropology. Synecology may be subdivided according to environmental types, e.g., terrestrial oraquatic ecology. Terrestrial ecology maybe further subdivided into forest, grassland, desert and arctic ecology. It concerns with such aspects of terrestrial ecosys as microclimate, soil chemistry, soil fauna, hydrologic cycles, ecogenetics and productivity. Terrestrial ecosystems are more influenced by organism and arc subject to much wider environmental fluctuations than aquatic ecosystems. Because the physical environment is so important in controlling the aquatic ecosystern, considerable attention is paid to the chemical and physical characteristics of the ecosystem, such as the current and the chemical composition of the water. By convention, aquatic ecology (known as limnology) is limited to stream ecology and lake ecology. Stream ecology concerns life inflowing waters, while lake ecology deals with life in relatively still water. Marine ecology, on the other hand, concerns life in open seas and estuaries. Other ecological approaches concern specialized areas. The study of the geographic distribution of plants and animals is known as ecological plant and animal geography. The study of population growth and mortality, is known as population ecology. The study of the genetics and ecology of local races and distinct species is called ecological genetics. The study of the behavioral responses of animals to their environment is known as behavioral ecology. Investigations of the interactions between the physical environment and the organism belong to ecoclimatology and physiological ecology. The study of the groups of organisms is known as community ecology. The part of ecology concerned with the analysis and understanding of the structure and function ofecosystems by using applied mathematics, mathematical models and computer programs is known as systems ecology. Applied ecology, on the other hand, is concerned with the applications of ecological principles to the management of natural resources, agricultural production and problems of environmental pollution. 7.2 Write a short note on biosphere cycles. Ans: The bio-sphere cycle may be defined as “the flow of various elements of the biosphere from environment to the organisms i.e., plants and elements and vice-versa.” In soil 90% of the nitrogen is organic obtained from decay of dead plants (biomass), animals and plants residue, faeces and urine of animals etc. It is hydrolyzed ammonium ion (NH4+)which is oxidized to no33. The bio-sphere cycle are broadly of three types as mentioned below : 1. Hydrological cycle 2. Gaseous cycle 3. Sedimentary cycle

Page 10 Notes

• What do you mean by 'Biosphere Cycle' ? Ans : Biosphere means sphere of life. The idea of Biosphere was suggested by Austrian geologist Edward Suess nearly a century ago. At that time it was not a so important concept. Today, however, the biosphere has become the most important problem faced by man. The basic function of biosphere is that it s life. It is estimated that biosphere contains more than three hundred and fifty thousand species of plants and eleven million animal species including man. The biosphere supplies the essential requirements for Society and Environment all those species such as plants, animal and human beings namely light, heat, water, food and living space etc. Biosphere cycle : Maintenance of the biosphere is possible through constant recycling of materials between the biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) components .These cycles are as given below; (i) Hydrological cycle : The path of water through environment is hydrological cycle (ii) Carbon Cycle: Carbon serves two purposes in the environment ( I ) It is structural component of organic molecules and (2) the energy holding chemicals bonds it forms for energy storage. (iii) Nitrogen cycle: Organisms cannot exist without amino acids, peptides, nucleic acids and proteins all of which are organic molecules containing nitrogen. (iv) The Phosphorus cycle : Minerals become available to organisms after they are released fro rocks. Phosphorus cycle is one of the mineral cycle begins when phosphorus compounds are leached from rocks and minerals over long periods of time. I (v) The Sulphur Cycle.-. Sulphur plays a vital role in organisms, especially as a minor but essential component of proteins. Sulphur compounds are in portant determinants of the acidity of rainfall, surface water and soil. (vi) Oxygen Cycle: Oxygen is the main source of respiratory gas for all terrestrial organisms. • Explain in brief the carbon dioxide cycle. Ans : Carbon is essential to life, carbon is the basic building block of the carbo-hydrates. Fats, proteins, DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleric Acid) and other organic compounds necessary for life. The carbon-cycle is based on carbon-dioxide gas, which makes up0.036% of the volume of the troposphere and is also dissolved in water. Carbon dioxide is a basic components of nature's thermostat. If carbon cycle removes too much CO2 from the atmosphere, the atmosphere will cool : if the cycle generates too much, the atmosphere, the atmosphere will get warmer . Thus, even slight changes in the carbon cycle can affect climate and ultimately the types of life that can exist in various parts of the planet. Terrestrial producers remove CO2 from the atmosphere and aquatic producers remove it from the water. Then they use photosynthesis to convert, CO2 into complex carbohydrates such as glucose. The cells in oxygen producers, consumers and decomposers then carry pit aerobic respiration. This breaks down glucose and other complex organic compounds and converts the carbon back to CO2 in the atmosphere or water for reuse by producers. This connection between photosynthesis in producers and aerobic respiration in producers, consumers, and decomposers circulates carbon in the biosphere and is a major part of the global carbon cycle. So the process of photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition and combustion (burning) or fossil fuels mainly maintains carbon cycle. 7.6 Explain in brief the main causes of eco-imbalance . Ans : Causes of Eco-Imbalance : The Reasons which cause ecological imbalance are given below. : If beyond 30% of forest land area is resprted to tree-felling then eco-balance is disturbed about 95% of the land in the arid and semi-arid regions of the world are in the process of desertification. Delineation means changing land into desert area. 1. Deforestation brings about erosion and soil movement. A large number to trees along the roadsides are falling down due to road construction. Improper road construction results in soil erosion that may lead to uprooting of large trees and degeneration of lower counts. This way it leads to serious ecological imbalances affecting adversely run-off factors, temperature gradient, and surface radiation. 2. Aerobic process accumulation enhancing need of BOD, COD and DO emanating from sewage and other wastes. 3. Industrial effluents and Agricultural discharges, 4. Automobiles . More than 40 lakhs surface transport moves on the roads of Delhi only. 5. lndustrial chimney . Thermal Power Stations, emission of flyash and dust from stone crushers. 6. Population and Gulf-war : A brief review of Gulf-war is described in a tabulated shape.

Page 11 Notes • What are the adverse effects due to eco-imbalance ? Ans : Some important polluted environment and imbalanced ecosystems are as follows : • Ill effect on human health. • Soil degradation. • Desetification. • Contamination of food . • Trace substances in the troposphere. • Genetic resource depletion • Depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer • Global warming. • List and explain the pragmatic remedies to prevent eco-imbalance.

Ans: Remediesfor Eco-Imbalance : Some important strategies (programme and plans) for reducing the ecological imbalance in the world eco-system are given below: (I) Road construction activities must be minimum on reserve forests in order to avoid and disturbance to natural wealth. It is better to consult an environmentalist prior to road construction. (II) In order to avoid any geological havoc, blasting and chipping mountain slopes must be done under the instructions of geological investigators. (III) Wood burning as a source of energy is very popular in those area where oil, gas and coal prices are very high. Besides this wood burning bring forth hazardous amounts of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC due to inefficient and incomplete burning of wood. EPA (Environmental Pro tection Agency) recommend use of Wood Stoves nation wide (hilly areas and plains) to over-power eco-imbalance as a remedial measure and attempt deal burning. (IV) Biogas is another way, the use of which can help in maintaining eco-balance. It is a source of renewable energy. I.I.T., New Delhi has develops technology of briquetting saw dust into smokeless fuel— a good and eco-friendly source of energy which yields Biogas and pynogas. Biogas is mainly produced from cattle dung, human excreta, straw, plant, leaves, paddy husk sludge, food industries and paper mills, Its use is good remedy for eco-imbalance besides being cheaper. (V) Programme of social forestry must be taken upto the grass root level. The wastelands must be garlanded with trees, and valuable herbs and shrubs. The best example of social forestry is found in China where even single inch of wasteland is not left without plantation. Debris obtained during road cut-tings must be accumulated at some appropriate place and plantation must be done on the same.This plantation will help in retaining the natural environment. Plantation must be done along the banks of rivers, nallaha etc. in order to avoid any further cutting of soil and to protect the water reservoir and dams from more siltation, Small water tanks along with the proper drainage system must be constructed along the roadsides in order to protect both flora and fauna. (Objective/Short Type) • Give a suitable definition of ecology. Ans : A.Mac fadyen : “Ecology is a science which concerns itself with the inter-relationships of living organisms, plants and animals and their environments' S.C.Kendeigh : “ Ecology is the study of animals and plants in their relation to each other and to their environment . ” • what is food chain? Ans : Ecosystems function by maintaining a flow of energy and a cycling of nutrients through a series of steps of eating and being eaten, of utilization and conversion, which is known as food chain. • what are the decomposers? Ans: Microconsumers or decomposers small heterotrophs, mainly the bacteria and fungi, which decompose the dead remains of plants and animals, utilize a part of the products of this decomposition for their own nourishment and, in the process, release simple substances which can be reutilized as nutrients by the producers. • Define detritus Ans: 7.13 The abiotic components of the ecosystem are: (a) Organic compounds (b) Microconsumers (c) Inorganic substances (d) None of these. 7.14 Macronutrients are: (a) Oxygen (b) Sulphur (c) Chlorine (d) Sodium 7.15 Match the following: (A) Ecology ........ (a) MicTobes (B) Biotic .... ... ....(b) Microclimate (C) Synecology . . (c) Water (D) Abiotic ............(d) Meteorology 7.16 Match the following: (A) Biosphere cycle...... (a) Calcium carbonate (B) Chlorophylis............. (b) Magnesium (c) Sedimentary cycle... (c) Biogeochemical cycle (D) Oysters................... (d) Sulphur cycle 7.17 Write true or false: Ans: An ecosystem may be a single tree. – True 7.18 Write true or false: The chemosynthetic bacteria obtain energy from the sun. - False Ans: The chemosynthetic bacteria obtain energy directly from chemical reaction • Write true or false: Fungi, bacteria and animals can be called autotrophs. Ans: Fungi, bacteria and animal can be called heterotropns. 7.20 Name the odd ones: (a) Carbon dioxide cycle (b) Sulphur cycle (c) Oxygen cycle (d) Nitrogen cycle 7.21 Fill up the blank: During photosynthesis, atmospheric co2 is incorporated into the

production of the carbohydrate which i& known as Glucose (C6 H12 O6) 7.22 Fill up the blanks : Fats are formed by the elements carbon , hydrogen and oxygen.

Page 12 Notes CHAPTER-8 ENVORONMENT DEGRADAITON MODEL QUESTIONS (Essay/Long type) 8: 1 Explain in brief the causes for environmental degradation in the Third World countries. Ans : India today is one of the First ten industrialized countries of the world. What these industries have provided and what has come out is noteworthy. There is no sustainable development. We have both non-degradable and bio-degradable pollutants. Pollutant emission within the permissible limit is a fine approach of development but the moment permissible limit is crossed may be due to anyone's carelessnessit becomes hazardous to the health of both living and non-living organisms. Air, water, soil and noise pollution is being experienced by society. This is not sustainable development We all know that pollutants are present in water, air, soil and sound. Their dimension, source and reduction procedures upto tolerable limits is discussed below one by one. • What is "organic growth"? Give some examples of unplanned growths . Ans : we had unbounded faith in science and technology and the miracles they would" work to eradicate poverty, disease and other ills of the society. Since independence, India has made tremendous progress on all fronts. India has also achieved near self-reliance in many core sectors such as iron and steel, crude oil refining and petrochemicals, drugs and pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, engineering goods, food and food processing, building materials and consumer goods. Unfortunately, this industrial transformation of the country was not well-planned from the point of view of environmental conservation and this improperly planned development has resulted in pollution of our air, water and land. The main factor of environmental pollution in the Indian sub-continent (i.e., in India, Pakistan, Bangaladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Sri Lanka) appears to be over-population that throws heavy demands on natural resources including air, water, soil, flora and fauna resulting in a serious imbalance in the ecosystem. An extreme example of this was the Bhopal Gas Tragedy . In January, 1984, an insecticide plant of Union Carbide leaked a toxic gas, methyl isocyanate, 4 that killed more than 2,000 people within hours and blinded or otherwise sickened thousands. Most of the victims of this biggest industrial accident in the world were the poor people living in the slums adjacent to the plant. According to many authorities, the main problem concerning environmental degradation is not "growth" but "unplanned growth". These authorities have formulated a new concept known as “organic growth". As an answer to the problem of environmental degradation. According to the principal of organic growth, the only answer to this universal problem is that governments should make universal decisions above their short-term and narrow national interests. Rich countries should transfer more of their resources to poor nations, and each country should specialize in what it is best equipped to produce. Development in harmony with the environment should be the spirit of our Five-Year Plans. If we build a large dam, for example, hundreds of thousands of trees are felled, thousands of acres of fertile land is lost, and thousands of poor people are displaced. This is the dilemma of development No one can deny the need for development; but every effort should be made to minimize its environ-mental cost. While planning for any developmental project, there should be specific provisions for environmental protection. Attempts should also be made to remove some of the weaknesses existing in the planning system, which include the lack of co-ordinated institutional , gaps in the necessary information and data required for the assessment of environmental impact of various developmental projects, inadequate availability of trained manpower and lack of strong public interest in environment issues. • Write a critical note on "Environmental Degradation by the Rich". Ans: The food requirements and habit of the rich Western countries have been instrumental in destroying the forests and degrading the land of many poor Third World countries. Despite the worldwide process of decolonization after the Second World War, it is almost certain that much more land is being used today in the developing countries to meet the food requirements of the Western countries than in the years before the Second World War. More than one-fourth of all the Central American forests have been cleared since 1960 for the purpose of cattle ranching and about 90% of the beef produced in these ranches are being exported to the USA, while the domestic consumption of beef in Central America has fallen dramatically during this period. In the US, on the other hand, the beef imported from Central America is mostly used to make pet food and hamburgers. The price of the Central American beef in the US (which is roughly half the price of the beef produced in the US from grass-fed cattle) does not represent its real ecological cost. The reason is that cattle ranching has proved to be the worst form of land use for the fragile soil of Central America on which the tropical forests existed before 1960. It was found that within 5 to 7 years of clearing the forest, the productivity of the soil dropped dramatically and the cattle ranches had to move on to some other areas and clear more forests. In our own country, the first major attack on the forests of the North-Eastern India came when tea plantations were established. The current over fishing on India's coast is

taking place mainly because of the heavy demand for prawns in the markets of rich Western countries and Japan. This overfishing often leads to tension and violent encounter between traditional fishermen and the owners of the mechanized trawlers. As a result, India and several other countries in South-East Asia have established regulations to prevent trawler operators from fishing in the first few kilometers from the coast, a zone reserved for the traditional fishermen. Similarly, the export of frog-legs from India to and other European countries to cater to the palates of rich Western consumers has led to tremendous increase in the population of agricultural pests in the affected areas. To control these pests, farmers have to use large amounts of costly pesticides which, in turn, leads to more environmental pollution. The pattern of mindless exploitation of natural resources that we see on the global scale simply repeats itself on the national scale. Exactly what the industry of the rich Western countries does to the environment of poor Third World countries, the Indian industry does the same to the environment of the resource-rich and economically poor states of India like Orissa, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh. Nearly half the industrial output in India comes from biomass-based industries like cotton, textiles, rayon, paper, plywood, rubber, soap, sugar, tobacco, jute, chocolate, tea, coffee, food processing, packaging and vegetable oils. Each of these industries exerts heavy pressure on the cultivated and forest lands of the country. These biomass-based industries need crop lands, forests, irrigation and energy. Thus, we see that one of the main sources of environmental degradation in the world is the heavy demand for natural resources by the high rate of consumption of the rich, whether they are rich nations or rich groups and individuals within the nation itself, and it is mainly their wastes that contribute to the global pollution.

Page 13 Notes • Explain in brief the effects of environmental degradation in India . Ans : One of the major effects of environmental degradation due to industrialization is the large-scale destruction of our forests, and this has a major impact on the productivity of our crop lands. The reduction of crop-land productivity due to the destruction of forests occurs in two ways. In the first place, when forests arc destroyed, there is a many-fold increases in the rate of soil erosion. The result is that the soil literally gets washed leading to an intensified cycle of floods and drought. Secondly, the destruction of forests leads to the shortage of firewood and this has an adverse impact on the productivity of crop lands. The reason is that when firewood becomes scarce, people begin to use cowdung and crop wastes as fuel for cooking and other purposes. As a result, every part of crop plants gets used (as fodder or fuel) and nothing goes back to the soil to enrich it. Over a period of time, this constant drain of nutrients from the soil adversely affects it productivity. The more intensive the agriculture (due to the use of high-yielding varities); without any manure and crop wastes going back into the soil, the faster is the nutrient drain. The district of Ludhiana in Punjab, for example, has the highest yield per hectare of many cereals today; but Ludhiana has also the highest deficiency of many micronutrients in its soil. In Punjab, many fanners have already started using zinc routinely as a fertilizer. If the dram of micronutrients from the soil continues, the farmers will soon be using sulphur, manganese and iron as fertilizers. The micronutrient fertilizer industry is likely to become a boom industry in the near future. 8.5 How is the ozone layer being destroyed? Explain in detail. Ans: ln the stratosphere, the destruction (or depletion) of the ozone layer is mostly Caused by elemental chlorine a toms. The mechanism for this destruction of ozone involves the following two reactions: O 3 + Cl ------------>ClO+O 2 ClO + O 3-----------> Cl 9+2O 2 Of course, there are some other chemical reactions going on in the stratosphere that modify and compete with the above two reactions. But if we ignore the other reactions and add the above two reactions, then we find that the net result is the following reaction: 2O 3 + Cl------------->3O 2 +Cl Thus, in the presence of chlorine atoms (Cl), two ozone molecules are converted into three oxygen molecules, while there is no net consumption of Cl atoms, which merely act as a catalyst. As a result, one Cl atom can go on converting many ozone molecules (O 3 ) to ordinary oxygen molecules (O 2 ) before it is consumed by some other chemical reactions. It has been estimated that a single chlorine atom in the stratosphere can convert as many as 10 6 to 10 6 O 3 molecules to 0, molecules before being consumed by some other reactions. This mechanism is often referred to as the catalytic destruction of ozone since the chlorine atoms act as a catalyst for the reaction. Most of the chlorine in the world is in the form of chemically stable sodium chloride (NaCI), either dissolved in the oceans or in underground salt deposits formed by the evaporation of ancient oceans. Elemental chlorine (Cl), which is a very reactive chemical, has a very short life-time in the lower atmosphere and has few natural ways to get from the lower atmosphere up to the ozone layer in the stratosphere. The only naturally occurring chemical that can transport much chlorine high enough into' the stratosphere to damage the ozone layer is methyl chloride (CH 3 CI), which is produced in large quantities by biological processes in shallow oceans. Most of this methyl chloride is destroyed in the troposphere (the lower atmosphere), but approximately 3% of the world-wide methyl chloride emissions reach the stratospheric ozone layer. Chemically active solar ultraviolet light in the range of 200 to 280 nm, which enters the ozone layer but does not penetrate below it, is strong enough to split up the methyl chloride molecules, releasing Cl atoms, which initiate the reactions given earlier and destroy the ozone molecules. Before we had the synthetic halogen compounds known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methyl was

probably the main natural destroyer of the ozone layer. However, this destruction of the ozone was in balance with its natural production mechanisms, leading to a steady-state ozone layer. Starting about a hundred years ago (i.e., from the first decade of the twentieth century), humans began releasing into the atmosphere synthetic chlorine-containing compounds in significant amount. The compounds like methyl chloride (CH 3 CI) that also contain hydrogen atoms can be attacked in the atmosphere by the OH radical. As a result, most of such chlorinecontaining compounds do not survive long enough in the atmosphere to reach the stratosphere. Carbon tetrachloride (CCI,), on the other hand, has no hydrogen atom; so most of it is believed to reach the stratosphere and participate in the destruction of the ozone layer. The world production of carbon tetrachloride, however, has remained more or less constant over the last 70-80 years.

Page 14 Notes • How should we protect the ozone layer? Write in brief. Ans: So far the only method we know to protect the stratospheric ozone layer is to limit the emission of those substances (mainly CFCs) that can destroy it. No one knows of another material we could send into the stratosphere to protect the ozone layer from CFCs. The threat to the ozone layer is so severe that international conferences have been held and declarations and treaties have been adopted that commit the nations to restrict and eventually eliminate the use of CFCs. For some applications of the CFCs, satisfactory replacements are alread available and for others, they are being sought on an emergency basis. Many of the proposed substitutes for CFCs are hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which contain atleast one hydrogen atom; so they are susceptible to attack by OH radicals in the stratosphere. Huge amounts of money and effort are being spent now to develop suitable substitutes for the CFCs. The original CFCs were designed to be non- toxic, non-flammable and chemically inert. There replacements should have all these properties and, in addition, a low ozone depletion potential (ODP). The ODP is a relative measure of the ability of a gas or vapour to attack and destroy the stratospheric ozone layer. It is expressed as a function of the percentage weight of chlorine in the halogenated hydrocarbon (to be used a CFC substitute) and its lifetime in the stratosphere. The chemical industry' is developing two major types of CFC substitutes. One of these, known as the hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) family, has a fairly low ODP. The other group, known as the hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) family, has zero ozone depletion potential since the of this family have no chlorine atoms in their molecules. It may be noted, however, that the of both families (HCFC and HFC) contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. Many chemical companies, including the industrial giants like Du Font (USA) and the Imperial Chemical Industries (UK), argue that the world should switch over to the HCFCs as an interim step because they are cheaper to produce and simpler to use. Compared to the CFCs, the hydrofluorocarbon (HFCs) are less stable and readily hydrolysed in the troposphere by the OH attack; so they are believed to be more environment tally acceptable than the CFCs. The data on the new HFCs are, however, scarce and of Limited accuracy and this is a major deterrent to their adoption as CFC substitutes. Another problem with the CFC substitutes is that they are not as good as the CFCs. For example, one HCFC (known as HCFC-2), which, is already being used in large-scale refrigerator installations in supermarkets, etc., cannot be used in domestic refrigerators. Another substitute, a hydrofluorocarbon known as HFC-134a, is under development for domestic refrigerators; but it is likely to cost at least five times more than the CFCs used currently for this purpose. In addition to the problems mentioned above, the CFC substitutes will require a substantial amount of re-engineering in many applications. In case of domestic refrigerators, for example, larger compressors and pumps may be needed when CFC replacements are used. These substitutes may also require more energy, thus forcing us to burn larger amount of fossil fuel, leading to more global warming. • Describe some methods to treat and dispose the municipal sewage. Ans: In developing countries, the organic pollutional load (contributed mainly by municipal sewage) is a major problem in connection with water pollution. In India, it has been estimated that municipal sewage contributes 90% organic pollutants to our river systems, 7% is contributed by large and medium industries, while the remaining 3% comes from small-scale industries. Thus treatment, utilization and proper disposal of municipal sewage are very important steps towards the control of water pollution. Some of the important methods used for the disposal of sewage are as follows : (1) Land Disposal and Sewage Irrigation. In this method, the sewage is disposed off on land (often for the purpose of irrigation) instead of discharging it into a water body. In this case, the land area acts as a crude filter and stabilizes the sewage by aerobic filtration. The sewage is usually given primary treatment before its disposal on land. This method is very similar to intermittent sand filtration. In case of sewage irrigation, the water and the fertilizing elements in the sewage, viz., nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, are utilized to raise crops. Hence, this method has the special advantage of fertilizing the land. (2) Dilution. In this method, the sewage is discharged into a large body of water like river lake or sea. The sewage is usually treated before discharging it into a water body to ensure that the condition of the receiving water body does not deteriorate to the extent of impacting on its normal use. I he cities arid towns which are situated near a large river (Allahabad, Kanpur, Varanasi and Patna, all of which are situated near the river Ganga) mainly use the method of dilution to dispose off their sewage. This method is considered quite satisfactory during the rainy season when the dilutionfactor is extremely high, but not suitable for the period from November to June, when the volume of river flow or the volume of water in the river is low, Treatment of Sewage

Primary Treatment: The primary treatment of sewage mainly consists of physical separation of floating and suspended solids (that are settleable) from the sewage. The main equipment used for the primary treatment are screens, grit chambers, detritus tanks, skimming tanks and settling tanks. Secondary Treatment : The secondary treatment of sewage includes flocculation and precipitation of the remaining materials in the sewage with the help of biological agencies, and their physical separation in secondary settling tanks. The by-products of the secondary treatment process are screenings, grit and sludges of different kinds. Out of these, the first two can be easily disposed off by burial or burning. Sludge, on the other hand, contains unstable volatile organic substances; so it may be treated by the method of digestion. In the process of digestion of sludges, various gases are produced with high calorific value which can be successfully utilized for heating or power generation. The solid materials left behind (i.e., the digested sludge) contain many fertilizing materials and are useful as manure or soil builder. Sludge Digestion : The process of sludge digestion consists of liquefaction of organic materials in the sludge by anaerobic bacteria, which produce an alkaline reaction. When the sludge is first placed in the digesting tank., acid digestion with the production of noxious gases results and eventually, alkaline digestion prevails. Once established, the alkaline condition remains in the digestor for an indefinite period. The gases given off by the sludge are mainly methane (CH~) with some carbon dioxide (CO;) and small quantities of other gases. Among the sludge gases, methane has a calorific value of 8,000 kcal/m3 Since methane forms about 67% of the sludge gases, the calorific value of the sludge gas can be taken to be approximately 5,334 kcal/m3 The sludge gas occupies about 0.95 m3/kg of volume at normal temperature and atmospheric pressure. The main use of the sludge gas, apart from heating the digestion tanks, is for generating power. The power thus generated is enough to pump the entire sewage. Dried digested sludge can be used as a fertilizer since it contains 0.8% to 3.5.% nitrogen, about 1.6% phosphorous and 0.35% potassium on the basis of the dry weight of solids. The digested sludge may also be used for land filling, incinerated to produce heat and power, or dumped into large bodies of water.

Page 15 Notes (Objective/Short Type) • What are SOx and NOx.? Ans; The two oxides of sulpher are sulpher dioxide (SO 2 ) and sulpher trioxide (SO 3 ), which are collectively known as SOx , where x=2 or x=3. There are several oxide of nitrogen (such as N 2 O, NO,NO 2 ,N2O 2 and N 2 O 5 ), Which are collectively known as NOx. • List four hea vy me tals that pollute water. Ans: heavy metals like Hg (murcury), Cd (cium), Pb (lead), As , Se and Sb. • What is a septic tank ? Ans : An important method used to process the domestic sewage is the septic tank,which is an underground sewage container madeof concrete.

• What are the c-wastes ? Ans : It has been estimated that more than one billion PCs (personal computers) have already been sold globally and there has also been a spurt in the sales of other electronic items like refrigerators, air conditioners, cellular phones and personal stereos. As a result, the quantum of electronic As a result, the quantum of electronic waste (discarded electronic items or “ e-waste ”) • What is ozone? Ans : The ozone (O 3 ) is a variant of oxygen (O 2 ), which contains three oxygen atoms instead of the usual two, as in the case of the oxygen molcule. • The common methods for the disposal of solid wastes are: (A) Sanitary land-fill (b) Incineration (c) Composting (d) None of these. • India is a: (a) Developed country among developing nations (b) Developing country among developed nations (c) Both (d) Only (a). • Thermal power plants use: (a) Coal (b) Oil (c) Uranium (d) Strontium

• Purification of gaseous pollutants maybe achieved by; (a) Catalyric conversion (b) Adsorption (c) Absorption (d) All of these. • Complex soil pollutants include: (a) Fly-ash (b) Plastics (c) Both (d) Neither. • Write true or false: Qua : Herbicides, fungicides and insecticides belong to the family of pesticides. Ans : True • Write true or false— Qua : Detergents are inorganic chemicals. Ans : Detergents are organic chemicals. • Write true or false: Qua : Radioactive isotopes have a Very long half-life. Ans : Radioactive isotopes have a short half-life. • Write true or false: Qua : Cium poisoning may lead to formation of kidney stones Ans: Cium poisoning may lead to toxic effect • Write true or false: Qua : Increase in dissolved oxygen adversely affects the aquatic plants and animals. Ans : Reduce in dissolved oxygen adversely affects the aquatic plants and animals. 8.23 Write true or false: Qua : Lime can not be used to precipitate phosphorous. Ans : Lime can be used to precipitate phosphorous. • Write true or false: Qua : The anaerobic treatment process is not effective for effluents containing high concentration of orgaiuc matters. Ans: The anaerobic treatment process has been effective for effluents containing high concentration of orgaiuc matters. • Fill up the blank: Prolonged exposure to noise may cause hearing loss . 8.25 Fill up the blank: Gobar gas is a mixture of methane (60% ) and carbon dioxide (35%) 8.27 Fill up the blank: Heat is an example of Thermal pollutant 8.28 Match thefollowing: (A) Noise pollution (a) Carcinogin (B) Dioxin (b) Detritus tank (C) Fly-ash (c) Auditory effect (D) Sewage (d) Power plant A-c,B-a,C-d,D-b • Match the following: (A) Brain damage (a) DDT (B) Deforestation (b) Population (C) Third World countries (c) Soil erosion (D) White lung lung (d) Textiles A-c,B-a,C-d,D-b Write the odd ones : (a) Greenhouse effect (b) Global warming • Suspended particulate matters (d) Acid rain.

Page 16 Notes CHAPTER –9 WASTE MANAGEMENT Long Type Questions: • Describe in brief the sanitary land-filling method for solid wastes disposal. Ans: The basic principle of a landfill operation is to deposit the refuse, compact it with the help of bulldozers and then cover the material with at least 15cm of dirt at the conclusion of each day's operation. When the area is full, a final cover of about 60cm of dirt is applied, which is necessary to prevent rodents from burrowing into the refuse. The selection of a proper landfill site is a difficult problem. The engineering aspects of land-fill site selection include: (1) Drainage: Rapid runoff reduces the mosquito problems, but close proximity to streams or dug-wells may result in water pollution. (2) Wind: It is preferable that the sanitary land-fill be situated in the down wind direction from the city or town. (3) Size: A small land-fill site with limited capacity is generally not acceptable because finding a new site involves considerable amount of trouble. (4) Ultimate Use: At the planning stage, one has to consider whether the area can be utilised for public or private use after the land-filling operation is completed. The above engineering problems are quite important, but even more important are the social and psychological problems of sanitary land-fills. No one in his right mind will be happy about having a sanitary land-fill near his house. A community may be rewarded with playgrounds, tennis courts, golf courses, etc., for tolerating a land-fill operation for a few years. If this operation is conducted according to accepted practice, there will be very little adverse environmental impact; but it is very difficult to convince and explain this to the people living near a land-fill. The reason is that most of the sanitary land-fills in the past were nothing but glorified garbage dumps. The sanitary land-fill operation is, in fact, a biological method of waste treatment. In the absence of oxygen, anaerobic decomposition steadily degrades the organic material to more stable form. This process, however, is very slow. The decomposition may still be going on after 25 years. The end products of anaerobic decomposition are mostly gases like carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), aminoma (NH 3 ), and a small amount of hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S). Since these gases have to find an escape, it is a good practice to install vents in land-fills to prevent the build-up of the above gases. The decomposition reactions are self-sustaining and temperature inside the land-fill often reaches 55-60° C. The biological aspects of the land-fill as well as the structural properties of the compacted solid waste dictate the ultimate use of sanitary land-fill sites. It is suggested that nothing should be constructed on a land-fill site for at least two years because uneven setting may often create problems. If initial compaction is poor, it may take as long as five years for just 50% settling to occur. If pilings are used as foundations on a land-fill, they should extend through the fill and onto rock or some other sufficiently strong material. 9.2 Describe a modem composting method. Ans: composting of solid wastes is an aerobic method of decomposing the wastes. Many types of micro-organisms, which are already present in the wastes, stabilize the organic matters in it to produce a soil conditioner. The micro-organisms that decompose the wastes include bacteria (which predominate at all stages of the process), fungi (which often appear after the first week) and actinomycetes (which exist during the final stages). Initially, the process starts with the mesophilic bacteria, which oxidize the organic matters in the wastes to carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and liberate heat. As a result, the temperature rises to about 45°C. At this point, the thermophilic bacteria take over and continue the decomposition. During this phase of decomposition, the temperature rises further to about 60°C. The refuse is periodically turned over to a How enough oxygen to penetrate all parts of the material to the process. The compost is stabilized after about three week's. The end point of a composting operation can be determined by noting a drop in the temperature, earthy smell and a dark brown colour. The moisture content of the wastes is a critical factor in the aerobic composting process. Excessive moisture makes it difficult to maintain aerobic conditions. Dearth of moisture, on the other hand, inhibits the growth of microorganisms. For an optimum rate of composting, a moisture content of about 55% is required, and it may be necessary to add water in order to maintain a satisfactory moisture content. Modern methods of composting may be classified into two broad categories: (1) Manual method. (2) Mechanical method. The manual method is more attractive for towns with a rural bias. Manual methods are widely practiced in India and many other developing countries. In India, two manual methods have been developed for composting the refuse/night-soil mixture. These are: (1) The Indore process. (2) The Bangalore process. In the Indore process, layers of vegetable waste and night-soil are alternated, each about 8cm thick, to depth of about 1.5m in a trench, or form a mound above the ground. The mixture is kept aerobic by turning it at regular intervals for two or three months. The resulting compost is then left for another month or so without turning. The whole process takes about 3-4 months. The Bangalore process of composting is a modified form of the hid ore process. The Bangalore process has been

widely adopted now by various municipalities all over India. In this process, the refuse/ night-soil mixture is placed in layers (as in the Indore process) in a trench of about one metre deep. In contrast to the Indore process, however, the material is not himed in the Bangalore process, but is digested under essentially anaerobic conditions, whereby the decomposition is complete in about 4-5 months. Though the Bangalore process avoids turning the material altogether, it lays great emphasis on the carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio of the compost heap and its initial moisture content. The resulting compost is free from pathogenic (i.e., disease-causing) organisms. On dry basis, the compost contains approximately 1.5% nitrogen, 1.1% phosphorous (as P 2 0 5 ;) and 1.5% potassium (as K 2 0) and proves to be a valuable nutrient for the soil. Fully mechanized composting plants involve shred ding, grinding and mechanical separation of high density solids. There are basically four processes of mechanical composting available in India; (1) The Buhler process. (2) The Dano process. ( 3 ) The Tollemache process. (4) The Nusoil process. In the Buhler process, the waste material is ground in two stages in hammer mills. The non-compos table inorganic materials (metals and glass) are separated from the waste by the strong sifting action on circular swinging sieves. The remaining corn postable materialis then decomposed aerobicatly in open trenches or mounds. Stabilisation by this process may take about 2-3 months. The Dane process uses a long rotating drum, called a bio-stabiliser unit, for decomposing the waste. The rotating drum is inclined so that the waste flows from one end to the other. The refuse is partially decomposed in the drum and the outcoming refuse is generally free from odour and pathogenic micro-organisms. This partially decomposed refuse is then completely decomposed in open trenches or mounds. The entire operation may take about a month. In the Tollemache process, the waste is pulverized in a vertical pulveriser and then ed through a screening plant to screen out plastics, etc. The pulverised and screened refuse is allowed to decompose in trenches mounds for about three weeks, with three or four turnings. The resulting compost is then cured for 4-5 weeks. The complete stabilization, therefore, takes about two months. In the Nusoil process the non-compostable inorganic material is separated from the waste, the resultant waste is pulverised and the pulverized waste is led to a vertical digester where decomposition takes place. The vertical digester is a cylindrical unit having seven sections. The refuse moves downward through each section of the digester. The rates of air flow and water addition are regulated so that the decomposition of the waste takes place under optimum conditions. The refuse is kept for about a day in each section of the digester and thus, the digestion process is completed in about seven days. The resulting compost is quite satisfactory' for direct field application without addition of supplementary nutrients.

Page 17 Notes • Write a critical note on biogas. Ans: It has been estimated that approximately 1,100 million tonnes of wet animal dung per annum are available in our country from 2.50 million catties. Even at 66 % collection rate, this cattle dung can produce 22,500 million cubic litres of biogas through biogas plants and save 14,000 million liters of kerosene per year, which is mainly used in the villages for lighting and partly for cooking. In addition, the slurry from biogas plants can produce 210 million tonnes of organic manure, which can replace 1.4 million tonnes of nitrogen (N 2 ), 1.3 million tonnes of phosphate (P 2 0 3 ) and 0.9 million tonnes of potash (K 2 O) per year. Unfortunately, this tremendous source of bioenergy has not yet been fully tapped. The variable factors range from cattle dung availability and its calorific value to biogas yield and appliance efficiency. Two major research needs in the area of biogas technology are restricted use of water in biogas plants and better strains of methane generating bacteria. In addition, temperature is a critical factor for the amount of methane generation in a biogas plant. The ideal temperature for maximum methane production is approximately 35° C since the bacteria are sensitive to lower temperatures, particularly in the northern regions of India. There is a fall in biogas production below 20° C and it stops altogether at 10°C. There is an urgent need, therefore, to develop new strains of methane generating bacteria which can produce methane at temperatures less than 20° C. • Describe a method to manufacture particle boards from wastes. Ans: Scientists at the Indian Pl)"wood Research Institute, Bangalore have developed a technology for manufacturing particle board from rice husk. The particle board obtained by using this technology is a versatile substitute in a wide range of applications. The particle boards, moreover, can also be made decorative by incorporating suitable colours, so they can be made more elegant looking and attractive than any other wood or plywood substitute. The particle board has been found to be superior to wood or plywood boards because of the following advantages it offers: (1) Particle board is resistant to termites (white ants) (2) It has a high resistance against decay. (3) The particle board has excellent mechanical properties such as elasticity, dimensional stability, screw and nail holding capacity, abrasion resistance and surface hardness. (4) It has an improved water resistance. (5} It has a high durability. Depending on the market demand, a varied of product-mix can be produced by varying the density and resin content of the boards. The method of particle board manufacture involves the following basic steps:

(1) Cleaning of the raw material (the rice husk). (2) Application of adhesive. (3) Matformmg. (4) Edge trimming. (5) Sanding. • Stacking. The process has been licenced to several firms in India and Malaysia. The particle boards produced by these firms have shown excellent market acceptance and gained popularity because of their elegant look, better mechanical properties and lower prices. Short Answer Questions: • What are social wastes? Ans: Solid waste, the third pollution after air and water pollution, is that solid material which arises from various human activities and which is normally described as useless or unwanted. • What do you mean by "shredding the solid wastes"? Ans: Shredding the solid wastes (also known as pulverizing) and then spreading the shredded material on fields has been found to be successful in a number of places. Since spreading it out dries the pulverized refuse, it avoids the problems of offensive rats and file. • What is a green fuel? Ans: The fuel obtained from waste plastic contains no lead and had a high octain rating, it is known as GREEN FUEL. • Define biomethanation? Ans: Instead of throughing the garbage , this garbage is mixed with water and bacterial species, specifically cultured for production of methane. These bacteria decomposes the waste by eating and as a result produces methane. This process is known as BIOMETHANATION. • What is fly-ash? Ans: Fly-ash from coal-fired power plants is a major industrial waste product in India. • What is incineration? Ans: It is the final solution for the solid waste problem (including volume reduction). 9.11 The highest calorific value can be obtained from: (a) Garbage (b) Rubbish (c) Fathological wastes (d) All have equal value. 9.12 The important vectors of human diseases in regard to solid wastes are: (a) Rats (b) flies (c) Both (d) non 9.13 Aquatic weeds cause: (a) Water-born diseases (b) Evapotranspiration (c) Blockage of waterways (d) none 9.14 Pyrolysis of plastics may yield: (a) Wax (b) Grease (c) Adhesive (d) All 9.15 Match the following: (A) Anthracene (C) Coal tar (B) Hydrometailurgy (D) Electroplating (C) Polymerized wastes (B) Metal Extraction (D) Silver (A) Nonbiodegradable 9.16 Match the following; (A) Cement (C) Biomass (B) Compost (A) Flyash (C) Gasifier (B) Dano process (D) Magnesium (D) Refractory 9.17 Write True or False: Open Dumping of solid waste is exclusively practiced in India .(T)

9.18 Write True or False: Sanitary land fill is an aerobic process. (F) 9.19 Write True or False: Composting is an anaerobic process. (T) 9.20 Write True or False: Generally the agricultural waste are non-hazardous. (T) 9.21 Fill in the blanks: The compound furfural , obtained from corn cobs, is the basic chemical used for the synthesis of nitrofurans. 9.22 Fill in the blanks: Land-fill operations are quite difficult to carry out during the raining season. 9.23 Fill in the blanks: One can recover -------- and -------- from the pickle liquor. 9.24 fill in the blanks: Pathological wastes have a moisture content of about 85%. 9.25 Write the odd one: (a) Nitrogen (b) Oxygen (c) Phosphate (d) Potash 9.26 Write the odd one: (a) Slurries (b) Strong Acids (c) Solids (d) Sludges

Page 18 Notes CHAPTER –10 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Long type Answers: 10.1 Define and explain sustainable development. Ans : In reality, all environmental problems are development problems. Many alternate development strategies have been propounded and they are being implemented without adequate environmental safeguards. In general, sustainability implies continuity of all things that are basically positive and might be thought of as broadly desirable or irable. Some other definitions or interpretations of sustainability or sustainable development are as follows: (1) Sustainability is the ability of an activity or development to continue in the long term without undermining that part of the environment which sustains it. (2) Sustainable development is the development that seeks to improve the quality of human life without undermining the quality of our natural environment. (3) Sustainability implies that human use or enjoyment of the world's natural and cultural resources should not, in overall , diminish or destroy them. 10.2 What r the salient features of the Brundtland Report,”Our Common Feature”? Ans: The term Sustainable Development was coined by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), headed by Dr. (Mrs.) Gro Harlem Brundtland (the then Prime Minister of Norway). In its report "Our Common Future", presented in 1987 (known as the Brundtland Report), sustainable development was defined as the "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs". Sustainable development, therefore, implies protecting the environmental wealth, human capital stock, land, water and air, ecological living and non-living resources, and socioeconomic resource base. 10.3 What r the fourteen indicators for “A Better Wuality of Life” as contained in 1999 White Paper of the govt. of UK? Ans: (1) The total output (Gross Domestic Product). (2) The per capita investment in private, public and business assets. (3) The percentage of people of working age in employment. (4) Qualifications at age 19. (5) The percentage of people with longer expected years of healthy life. (6) The percentage of homes judged unfit to live in. (7) The level of crime. (8) The per capita emissions of green-house gases. (9) The number of days in a year with air pollution moderate or high. (10) The condition of road traffic.

(11) The quality and quantity of readily available water. (12) The population of wild birds. (13) The percentage of new homes built on previously developed land. (14) The per capita waste generation and management of waste. 10.4 Write briefly on the Technology for Sustainable Energy. Ans: Energy problems of urbanised population : The details of energy demand clearly reflect that there is imbalance between demand and supply of energy. The demand of energy is more whereas supply is less. Demand is more because number of houses and vehicles are increasing day by day. Besides this, consumers of energy are abundant in number. We were 34.7 crores in 1951 but now we are more than 1OO crores in India. Every one nearly is having electrical appliance. The energy consumption is therefore shooting up. 10.5 Write a critical note on the Technology for Sustainable materials . Ans: There is a global realization of the fact that single use of some of The important materials like metals, glass and paper would lead to scarcity of such materials since their feed-stocks would get exhausted. In developed countries, resource recovery is a high technology area. In many developing countries like India, however city garbage is sorted out manually for the recovery of metals, glass, plastics, paper, etc., which generate employment and materials for reuse. The reasons for waste utilization are: (1) economic (2) environmental (3) resource conservation (4) employment generation and (5) provision of basic necessities of life.

Page 19 Notes Short Answer Type Questions: 10.6 What is CNG and what r its main uses? Ans: CNG means Compressed Natural Gas, it is mainly used as a fuel. The engines of the other automobiles can be easily modified to run on CNG. In case of CNG the cost is low, wear and tear of engine is low and the environmental pollution is also low. 10.7 Write all the steps of chemical reaction for the conversion of coke or coal to methanol. Ans: The chemical process for the conversion of coke to methanol is as follows: C + 2H 2 O -------- > CO 2 + 2H 2 C + H 2 O -------- > CO + H 2 CO + 2H 2 -------- > CH 3 OH

10.8 What is Photovoltaic Cell? Ans: Photovoltaic energy conversion is a direct energy conversion in the sense that the light energy is directly converted into electrical energy without intermediate involvement of mechanical or thermal energy. Photovoltaic energy converters are generally known as Solar Cells. 10.9 Give examples of four non-metallic materials which can be recycled and can be reused. Ans: 1) Paper, 2) Cow Dung, 3) Plastics, and 4) Glass. 10.10 What r uses of China Clay? Ans: China clay is produced from Granite Rock for use in ceramic industries. About 80 –-90% of the extracted rock is spoil, which includes over burden, waste rock and coarse sand. The bulk of these materials is dumped. Coarse sand is used in road construction and in manufacture of building materials. 10.11 At the time of deg of a development project, care should be taken to preserve: (a) Hills (b) Valleys (c) Springs (d) All of these. 10.12 Barry commoner, in his famous book “ The closing circle”, formulated: (a) Two laws of ecology (b) Four laws of ecology (c) Three laws of ecology (d) No law of ecology 10.13 Sectors which r most vital for sustainable development of India are: (a) Agriculture (b) Infrastructure (c) Water (d) All 10.14 Match the following:

(a) Energy (D) Ozone depletion (b) Geo-thermal Energy (C) Our common future (c) Brundtland (A) Transport sector (d) Montreal protocol (B) Cambay basin 10.15 Write true or false: Nothing, in fact, is really a waste. (T) 10.16 write true or false: Primary metal industries recover metals from municipal wastes. (T) 10.17 Name the odd one: (a) Glass (b) Plastic (c) Aluminium (d) Rubber 10.18 Name the odd one: (a) Hydrogen (b) Methanol (c) Coal (d) Iron 10.19 Fill in the blanks: All natural features maintain ecological balance.

Page 20 Notes MOBILITY 3.1.1 Types of Mobility The term "mobility" or "social mobility" in its widest sense refers to any movement of individuals, families or social groups among different sectors of society. The movement in the same country from one occupation to another or from one religion to another is a kind of mobility at the national level. On the international scale, migration of people from one country to another is a very important type of mobility. In anv discussion of mobility, a distinction is usually made between the so called "horizontal" and "vertical" mobility. The horizontal mobility involves no change in the position of the individual or the group in the social hierarchy(system of grades of status) - When a worker moves from one factory to another, or when an engineer takes a position in another company, there is no significant change in his social status. This is an example of horizontal mobility. The vertical mobility, on the other hand, involves a change of social level in the process of movement. If a worker becomes a wealthy businessman, his position in the class system changes quite radically. This is an example of vertical mobility, (upward). It may be noted here that vertical mobility may involve either upward or downward movement. An example of downward mobility is a member of an upper class who is dispossessed of his wealth in a revolution and is forced to enter into a manual occupation. Modern sociologists have concentrated their attention mainly on the upward mobility. This is due to the fact that they have been preoccupied with the question of equality of opportunity. In recent years, it has been suggested by many social theorists that the degree of downward mobility might be a far better indicator of the "openness" of a particular society. The reason is that downward mobility can clearly show the extent to which it is possible for the privileged(special benefit or honour) classes and groups to maintain their status and on to their descendants the advantages that they enjoyed. Though sociologists have been mostly preoccupied with the mobility of individuals, it is easy to see that whole families, groups, and even classes may, at certain times, change their position in the social structure. One of the earliest writers to bring out the diverse aspects of vertical social mobility was the economist Joseph Schumpeter, who in 1927 analysed and illustrated what he termed the "rise and fall" of individuals, families, and whole classes within the class structure. In studying the movement of individuals, sociologists distinguish between the following: (1) Intra generational Mobility. (2) Inter generational Mobility. The Mobility is said to be intra generational when an individual moves vertically upward or downward within his own adult lifetime. On the other hand, if vertical movement represented by a change in the social level occurs from the parental to the filial(of or due from a son or daughter ) generation (mostly from father to son), it is known as the intergenerational mobility. In recent years, comprehensive national studies of mobility have been conducted in many countries, but such studies have dealt almost entirely with intergenerational mobility, investigating changes in occupation between father and son. Another limitation of these studies is that they have concentrated heavily on the educational opportunity as a major factor influencing upward mobility. In contrast to the mobility of individuals, the rise and fall of families, groups or classes is relatively more difficult to study, but such movements can be documented in other ways. An important example of the upward mobility of families is the emergence of new ruling dynasties( raajvansh ). Other examples can be found in the rise and fall of family business or politically influence. Such mobility of particular social groups usually occurs as a result of economic, political and cultural influences. 3.1.2 Historical Studies of Mobility: The problem with historical studies of mobility is that they largely provide illustrations of various types of mobilities but do not show the extent of it due to lack of data. Such historical studies do not give the actual number of individuals or families who change their position by upward or downward movement in the social hierarchy over a given period of time. As a result, historical comparisons of mobility are quite difficult and largely speculative (theorize, conjecture). In fact, there are many

difficulties even in examining the trends of mobility in more recent industrial societies. Nevertheless, most sociologists agree that the vertical social mobility (especially that of individuals) is greater in modern industrial societies than it was in earlier societies. On the other hand, modern social research shows that. Even in industrial societies. Mobility is limited and that there are no substantial differences between different industrial societies in the extent of mobility in spite of the general belief that social mobility is greater in the United States than in the European countries. The movement of individuals from the working class into the upper class is generally rare in all societies. Comparisons among industrial societies show that the greater part of the vertical social mobility is a short-range mobility. Modern investigations suggest that one should be cautious in the interpretation of historical s of social mobility and undue prominence (clearly visible). Should not be given to exceptional cases of upward or downward movement. It is quite likely that, in all societies and at most times, there is considerable amount of stability. When this stability is not maintained by any formal or legal sanctions, it is ensured by the inheritance of property, educational advantages or political influences. 3.1.3 The Process of Mobility The nature and degree of vertical mobility in a society are governed by a number of factors. One universal factor is the occurrence of individuals with exceptional endowments ( something that is settled on any person or institution) such as intelligence, physical strength, beauty, business acumen, etc. In the past, beautiful women rose to social eminence( rising above others; conspicuous) as the mistresses of kings and nobles, and in more recent times, as film stars. Similarly, men (and to some extent, women too) have risen in the social hierarchy ( body or organization classified in successively subordinate grades) by accumulation of wealth, attainment of political or military power, and intellectual or artistic achievements. Manifestations ( clearly shown) of such personal qualities in exceptional amounts are quite limited and, so are the social advantages that they bring. Vertical social mobility resulting from exceptional personal qualities is governed by many social factors. In the first place, the open or closed nature of the class system in a particular society has a powerful influence on the vertical movement of individuals. An individual in a close system encounters many obstacles if he seeks to escape from his social position as a slave, serf( one bound to work on the land), or a member of a lower caste. The ideology that upholds such a system usually tends to inhibit the development of talent and ambition at the lower levels of the society. In the more open class systems of modem societies, there are no formal restrictions on upward vertical mobility. However, talented individuals from a lower social class have to overcome many difficulties, arising mainly from poverty and lack of education, in order to succeed and move to a higher social class. In contrast, less talented individuals from the upper classes are able to maintain their positions due to their inherited social advantages. The extent to which an individual talent will lead to upward mobility is also limited by the general orientation of the activities of a particular society'. A primitive tribal society that lives by hunting or is engaged in an on-going warfare with other neighbouring tribes will naturally place a high value on physical strength. Similarly, a nation engaged in imperial ( pertaining to ) expansion and colonisation ( the act or practice of colonizing) will highly rate military qualities; and the nation that is mainly concerned with industrial and economic developments will attach the greatest importance to business skills. The general changes in social structure has a profound influence on social mobility- For example, a revolution that dispossesses ( to degrade) an existing upper class or a national liberation movement that overthrows foreign rule creates new opportunities for individuals, groups and even whole classes to move upward and occupy dominant positions. The mobility is also affected by more gradual changes in a society, especially if the changes occur in its occupational structure. Thus, the expansion of technical and professional employment involves a continuing movement out of manual work, and this s for a major cause for the upward mobility in modem industrial societies. Mobility is high during a revolution and after a revolution, a system of social stratification may emerge and the rate of social mobility may decline ( to deviate) . Similarly, during recession or depression, when the rate of growth slows down, opportunities for mobility are greatly reduced. In such circumstances, the possibility of upward mobility will largely depend upon the extent of downward mobility. Another factor having an influence on the mobility, when there is little economic development, is that of differential fertility. If the upper and middle classes limit their families, the vacant places maybe filled by individuals who rise from the lower classes. Such differential fertility has rarely been a major influence on social mobility. Upward social mobility has often been promoted by international movement of population . A very important example of this phenomenon is the colonial expansion of many European countries from the sixteenth century onwards, which provided opportunities for individuals to move upward in society by enriching themselves as traders or settlers and, at the same time as they subjugated ( to bring under power) other people in Asia, Africa and America. At a later stage, with the creation of new societies by European settlers in their adopted countries (especially in North America and Australia), fresh opportunities for mobility were provided by large scale immigration.

Page 21 Notes 3.1.4 Consequences of Mobility The vertical movement of a large number of people up and down the social hierarchy tends to break down the exclusiveness of the social class and creates a more uniform national culture. Hopefully, this may also lead to reduction of class conflict, or at least class prejudices. Many sociologists have claimed that the lesser degree of mass consciousness in the US society, as compared to the societies of European countries, is due to the highest rate of social mobility in the US. It may be noted that the widespread belief that opportunities for upward mobility are greater in the US than in other societies may itself have had an important influence on the lesser degree of class-consciousness in the US. The other side of the coin of social mobility is the argument that preoccupation with vertical movement reinforces the class system. Thus, the individuals who are concerned to rise or at least to avoid falling in the social hierarchy accept and even emphasize ( to lay stress on) the importance of class and status distinctions ( separation or division) . Another consequence of mobility is the more effective use of individual talent and ability, and this is generally considered beneficial from the point of view of the society as a whole.

The reason is that if the individuals are confined to the social segment in which they are born, many useful talents will remain undiscovered and unused. In modern industrial societies, the expansion of education has been stimulated ( to produce increased action in) by the desire of the governments to provide opportunities for the development of all the abilities in the population, although most of the countries are far from achieving this goal. Vertical mobility may also have some undesirable consequences. Vertical social mobility, both upward and downward, produces strain in the individuals striving for success and adapting to new social milieus. Such mobility may also be disruptive ( having an upsetting or unsettling effect) of families and local communities, (e.g., in Kerala, where thousands of talented individuals have gone to work in the Middle East countries, disrupting their family life). A high rate of vertical mobility may produce in a society the condition that the French Sociologist Durkheim called "anomie" (meaning normlessness) and the resultant disorientation and anxiety ( a state of being anxious) . Under this condition, there is insufficient regulation of the individual behaviour, and the individual suffers from the "malady of infinite aspiration ( lofty hopes or aims )". The presence of such stress and strain may also give rise to a higher incidence of mental illness among the highly ambitious and highly mobile individuals. 3.1.5 Channels of Mobility Many social institutions like army, church, school, political party and occupational organisation serve as the channels of vertical mobility through which individuals ascend or descend the social ladder. In any society, at a given period of time, one of these institutions may play a dominant role, (the army in time of war). With the exception of the period of anarchy, vertical mobility is strongly controlled by the elaborate social machinery of testing, selection and placement of individuals with regard to various social positions. The family, the church and the school test the general intelligence and character of the individual according to their standards. When the individual enters an occupational institution, he is tested for the specific ability and skills necessary for the successful performance of definite functions. These institutions, therefore, serve as social sieves. They perform not only the educational and training functions, but the selective functions as well. The process of vertical mobility exerts a number of important influences upon social life. Intensive vertical mobility increases plasticity arid versatility of behaviour and stimulates progress in thought, discovery and invention. On the other hand, too high a rate of social mobility seems to increase mental diseases when the individuals face difficulties in adaptation to the new situation. Vertical mobility makes the social structure elastic, breaks the isolation created by class and caste and stimulates rationalism. It's direct and indirect influences on all aspects of social organisations are very potent, but highly complex. 3.1.6 Current Trends in Mobility The economic development of the Western industrial nations after the World War II and the provision of more elaborate welfare services have generated significant changes in the class system. These changes have been interpreted in many different ways by various sociologists. According to some authors, there has been a general diminution ( decrease) in class differences. This has resulted in a higher level of living, greater social mobility and a limited redistribution of wealth and income. These social changes are reflected in a decline in class conflict. This interpretation leads to the conclusion that the Western societies are moving in the direction of relative classlessness or that they are becoming predominantly middle class societies. In sharp contrast to this interpretation, other social scientists have argued that the social changes since World War II are leading to the formation of new social classes like a new upper class consisting of managers and organizers of production in both public and private sectors. 3.2 INCOME DISTRIBUTION 3.2.1 Concept of Income Income results from the services rendered to the society by an individual or an organisation. Service may be defined as the creation of desirable events, results or the avoidance of undesirable events/results. The value of an income is the value of the services. For all practical purposes, the value of an income is measured in of money. Under services, one may include the following: (1) The benefits from a property right such as the interest yield from a bond or a fixed deposit in a bank. • The benefits derived from objective instruments such as the shelter offered by a dwelling. • From the co-operation of individuals with such objective instruments (the transport sender of a railway). (4) The services rendered by individuals whether they are manual, labourers or highly qualified professionals. The total income of an individual or personal income is the total money value of the services received by him from all sources during a given period of time, usually in one year. Similarly, a person's net money income is the sum of all his money receipts less the money invested by him. The income of society as a whole is the total money value of all the services received by the of the society from all sources. In case of an individual, his "real income" is the money value of his expenditures on food, clothing, shelter, amusements and other miscellaneous services. One important result of these principles of income calculation is the exclusion of capital gains from the income. The capitalisation, at any point of time of the income expected in the future, is not itself an income. By the same token, an increase in the capitalisation from one point of time to another is not income except potentially. Thus, if a fixed deposit of Rs.lOOO.OO in a savings bank is earning Rs.lOO.OO a year as interest and if the depositor withdraws his interest earnings every year, the actual income from his fixed deposit is Rs.lOO.OO a year and the principal sum of Rs.l 000.00 is the capitalisation of this income. On the other hand, if he does not withdraw the interest, this amount is merely accrued and becomes capital gain rather than an income. Certain peculiarities attach to income from labour as contrasted with income from property. Thus in computing the income of a domestic help, it would be necessary to include not only his wages but also his perquisites ( of one's own) like boarding and lodging since these are a part of his compensations, in addition to money wages. Moreover, ants do not usually deprecate the income of a working man as they depredate in case of a machine, for they cannot easily appraise the value of a human being. More complications arise due to the fact that income must be defined for the purpose of taxation. Thekind of income that is taxed is largely determined by the economicorganisation of a country and the fiscal needs of its govemmen*.

Page 22 Notes 3.2.2 National Income National income may be defined provisionally as: (1) The net total of commodities and services produced by the people comprising a nation. (2) The total of such commodities and services received by the nation's individual in return for their assistance in producing commodities and services. (3) The total of goods and services consumed by these individuals out of the receipts thus earned or (4) The net total of desirable events enjoyed by these individuals in their…………………………………. 'Defined in any of the above mentioned manners, national income is the end product of a country's economic activity. As a result, national income reflects the combined play of economic forces and serves to appraise the prevailing economic organisation of a country. Figures for per capita income, especially when adjusted for differences in purchasing power of money, measure the economic welfare of a country. A continuous series of annual estimates of either the total or per capita national income suggest whether the nation tends in the course of time to grow richer or poorer arid how rapidly this change takes place. 3.2.3 Distribution 3.2.3.1 Problem of Income Distribution It is not enough for a country to attempt to increase its national income by development programmes. The national income must be increased; but it is also necessary to ensure that it is equitably distributed among various sections of the society. Inequality of income is an important feature of capitalist economies. Even socialist and communist countries, who have established systems for the purpose of reducing inequalities of personal income, have failed to attain this equality, in prohistoric times, there was no need for a policy on income distribution since man led a nomadic ( a member of a wandering pastoral community life), always in search of food. Income distribution came into force during the feudal ( a right to the use of land, houses, etc in perpetuity) system and attamed great importance with the advent of the Industrial Revolution. Government policies to ensure a fair distribution of personal income are among the most controversial and difficult issues of public policy. 3.2.3.2 Causes of Inequality The major components of personal income are labour earnings (salary or wages), property earnings (rents, interests and dividends) and government transfer payments. Disposable personal income consists of the personal income minus any taxes paid on it. Wealth (or "net worth") consists of the total value of financial and tangible ( capable of being possessed) assets minus the amount of money owed to bankers or other creditors. The major causes of inequality of incomes in an economy are: (1) Inheritance : Some persons are born with a silver spoon. Rich inheritance gives them a good start in life, Some persons are born landless; others inherit thousands of acres. Some parents die under debt leaving the burden of debt on their children while others leave huge cash and properties to their heirs. So long as the system of inheritance continues, inequalities are bound to continue. (2) System of Private Property : Under the system of private property, a person is free to earn, free to save and free to own property. Once a person earns and acquires property, his property starts earning for him by way of rent, interest, etc.). That's why some earn more and others earn less and differences in property lead to difference in income. Property is one of the major causes of the inequality of income. (3) Differences in Natural Qualities : No two persons have the same natural qualities. Some are more gifted than others. Persons who are endowed by nature with superior intelligence, better physique and greater capacity for hard work can easily sur others in the race of life. Some inherit a feeble mind in a feeble body and they are left behind. (4) Difference in Acquired Talents : To some extent, environment makes the man since natural (or inborn) qualities are considerably modified by environment. A child may be highly intelligent, but if he or she is not lucky enough to receive proper education or training, the latent abilities remain mostly undeveloped. On the other hand, a child of even mediocre ( average in quality, performance) nature abilities can do better if he or she is properly brought up and educated. Professional education, for example, improves a person's earning capacity. (5) Lack of Opportunities : Some persons are lucky enough to get a good chance, and they may make the most of it. It is well known that underdeveloped regions (like Uttaranchal, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Nagaland) do not offer good opportunities for employment, where as developed regions (like Punjab, Maharashtra and Gujarat) have ample opportunities. 3.2.3.3 Consequences of Inequality Inequality of income leads to serious economic and social consequences. Some of the major consequences of uneven income distribution are as follows: (1) Class Conflict : Inequitable distribution of income and wealth has divided the society into two classes, the "have's" and the "have-nots", which are forever on the war path. This class conflict leads to social and political discontent (2) Political Domination : The rich dominates the political machinery and uses it to promote his own interests. This results in corruption and social injustice.

(3) Exploitation of the Poor : The rich exploits the poor economically, socially and politically. The awareness of this exploitation may lead to political awakening, agitation and even political revolution. Inequality of income is an important cause for social and political instability. (4) Creation of Monopolies : Unequal distribution of income promotes monopolies. The monopolies can crush small enterprises and change unfair prices. (5 ) Suppression of Talent : It is not easy for a poor person to make his way in life, no matter how talented he or she may be. It is a great social loss that highly brilliant but poor people are not able to make their full contribution to the society and the nation. (6) No Real Democracy : Democracy is a farce when there is a wide gulf between the rich and the poor. There can be no real democracy and political equality without economic equality. (7) Moral Degradation : Unequal distribution of income leads to moral degradation of the society as the rich are corrupted by vice and the poor are demoralized by lack of economic resources. The economic inequality corrupts the rich and degrades the poor. It becomes almost impossible for the poor to retain their honesty and integrity when they see the corrupt and rich people rising in life. 3*2.3.4 Measures to Reduce inequalities In the present era of social and political awakening, it has become a major plank of political policy to reduce the inequality of income distribution, if not eliminate it. After the independence, India decided to set up a socialistic pattern of society. With this end in view, the Government of India strives to prevent the concentration of wealth and income in a few hands. Some of the measures to reduce inequality in the distribution of income and wealth are: (1) Fixing Minimum Wage : The first step in the direction of a more egalitarian ( believing in and upholding the principle of equality among people.) society is to guarantee each citizen a minimum wage, consistent with a minimum standard of living. The Minimum Wage Act was ed in India in 1948. In pursuance of this Act, minimum wages are fixed from time to time for agricultural labour and other workers. (2) Social Security : An important measure for a more equitable distribution of income is the introduction of a comprehensive social security scheme assuring each citizen a minimum standard of economic welfare. Such a social security scheme must include provision for free education up to certain level, free medical and maternity aid, old-age pension, unemployment benefits, compensation for sickness and accidents, provident fund and group insurance schemes. In this way, substantial benefits can be assured even to persons whose incomes are low. Social services like public parks, libraries, museums, community halls and community TV sets may be provided on a liberal scale so that poor are able to enjoy many of the amenities available to the rich. (3) Equality of Opportunity : The government may devise suitable means to provide equal opportunities to both the rich and the poor in getting employment or getting a start in trade or industry. For example, the government may institute a system of liberal scholarship, stipends and low interest loan so that the poor can acquire higher education and technical skills. In India, many concessions are offered to the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, other backward classes and persons living in backward areas to reduce inequality in the society. (4) Steeply-Graded Income Taxes: As possible fiscal devices may be adopted to bridge the gap between the rich and the poor. One such device is the steeply-graded (i.e., progressively higher) income taxes. This can prevent to some extent the rich getting richer. Other direct taxes like the super tax, the excess profits tax, the capital gains tax and limits on dividends may also be used for this purpose. (5) Steep Estate Duty : In order to prevent the perpetuation ( continuation or preservation for ever) of inequality from generation to generation, steeply-graded estate duty, death duty and succession taxes may be imposed. In 1964-65, and again in 1966~7, the rates of estate duty were made steeper in India, ri to 40%. (6) Ceiling on Property : With a view to reducing inequalities between the big and small farmers, ceilings on agricultural holdings may be imposed, as has already been done in India. The main purpose of land ceilings is to bring about a wider ownership and use of land. Similarly, a ceiling ( an upper limit) on urban property may be imposed so that the inequalities in urban areas can be reduced.

Page 23 Notes 3.2.4 Statistical Analysis of Income Distribution In the first place, there has been an attempt to establish a functional relationship between the size of income and the number of recipients. Secondly, an attempt has been made to summarise the income distribution by a single measure of the inequalities of income. The most famous attempt in the first direction is the Pareto's law. The law, in its most dogmatic form, states that the distribution of income in the upper ranges of income tax payers shows a linear relationship. Mathematically, the Pareto's law may be stated as: logN logA-c…………………………………. where / is the income size, N is the number of individuals having an income equal to or larger than X and A and a are constants (found from empirical statistics by fitting the data to the straight line given by the above equation). It has been found that the constant (x (the slope of the straight line) is approximately equal to 1.5 in all countries at present. In addition, all ranges of income distribution follow the same linear relationship for all countries at present. It follows, therefore, that because of the unchanging and unchangeable nature of the whole range of income frequency distribution, economic welfare can be increased only through an increase in the total amount of income. It is obvious that the Pareto's law is of great importance for major questions of economic theory as well as economic policy. Many economists and statisticians have directed their attention towards testing of its validity. Results of such cumulative analysis have shown that

the Pareto's law is quite inadequate as a mathematical generalisation. Because of the heterogeneity of the frequency distribution curve (due to grouping together of income from various economic categories), it is unlikely that any mathematical law describing adequately the entire distribution of income can ever be formulated. Other attempts to substitute for the linear distribution with another mathematical expression have also been found unsatisfactory for describing the distribution of income. However, a French economist, R. Gibrat, has obtained successful descriptions of a large number of frequency distributions of income by using a modification of the normal distribution curve of errors. The curve employed by Gibrat is: Y-r"" Vii Z=aloste-x„)+b…………………………………………. where y is the number of income recipients, X is the variable size of income, (X - x3 is a selected income constant, while a and b are constants to be found from empirical statistics. The assumption in which eq. 3.2.4.2 differs from the normal distribution curve is that the effect of each of the numerous contributory factors is not independent but proportional to the effect of other factors. 3.2.5 Measures of Inequality of Income The more fruitful developments in the direction of summarising inequality of income by a single measure has yielded numerous measures. Such single measures of inequality of income broadly fall into four groups: (1) The measures derived from a specific type of mathematical equation and hence, contingent upon the goodness of fit of the curve implied by that equation. • The measures of the mean deviation type, available in the statistical theory of frequency distribution and applicable to diverse types of ----------------- . • The measures of mean difference types. • The measures constructed by using definite theoretical criteria in regard to welfare equivalents of individual income. In the first group, there are three important measures of inequality. The coefficient a of Pareto's equation has been employed as a measure of inequality. The steeper the slope (the larger the numerical value of a), the smaller the inequality of income. A second measure of inequality is Gini's index of concentration 5, which is derived from another equation of income distribution: log N=8 logS-log K where N is the number of individuals whose income is above a certain size, S is the sum of incomes (each greater than the certain size), and 5 and K are constants to be determined from empirical data. It may be noted that N is a function of the sum of incomes greater than a certain size rather than a function of that income size itself, as in the case of the Pareto's law. The relationship between Pareto's measure a and Gini's measure S can be eunr~rl by the pniiatinn IX third measure of inequality of income may be derived from the curve employed by Gibrat. This measure is taken to be equal to 100/a. Of the dispersion measures developed in the statistical theory offrequency distribution, the average and the standard deviation naturally suggest themselves as indices of the inequality of income. The resulting relative measures of dispersion can be obtained from a frequency distribution in which the class intervals of income size are taken in absolute figures or in logarithms. The advantage of the latter procedure arises from the fact that the positive skewness characterizing frequency distributions of income is reduced by taking the income variable in of logarithms.The mean difference of incomes is given by the arithmetic average of differences(taken without regard to their positive or negative signs) between all possible pairs of incomes. This measure was suggested by Gini and it is known as the "ratio of concentration". Another widely known measure of inequality, which is related to Gini's ratio of concentration, is known as "Lorenz curve". In the Lorenz curve, the cumulative percentages of total income (lc) are plotted along theX-axis, while the cumulative percentages of population (PC), from the poorest to the richest, are plotted along the Y-axis. In the Lorenz curve, an equal distribution of income (total absence of inequality) is represented by a straight line ing through the origin and having a slope eaua] tn unity as shown by the straight Imp A in the fig.

Page 24 Notes Fig.3.2.5.1 Typical Lorenz curves (Ic=cumulative percentages of income and PC =cumulative percentages of population) Empirical distributions of income, on the other hand, usually appear as concave hyperbola, as shown by the curves B and C. The existing inequality.of income is measured by the area between these straight hyperbolas and the line. The curve B shows less inequality of income, while the curve C indicates greater inequality. The variety of methods devised to measure the inequality of income illustrate the profusion( spending a lot of money) of various aspects. It also suggests a high probability of divergent results from the analysis of one and the same data. In addition, this lack of agreement as to the precise aspect of inequality to be studied is usually accompanied by paucity ( insufficiency ) of adequate empirical data on income distribution. Considering these two factors, therefore, one would expect to find few definite conclusions as to the trends or differences in the inequality of income. On the contrary, one usually finds a profusion of contradictory generalisation, which are often obvious results of pressure to respond somehow to a problem vital to social policy. How divergent and unreliable such inferences are may be illustrated in the case of former Prussia, which is one of the few countries for which empirical data on personal distribution of income are available for a long period. From the income data for Prussia for the years 1875,1896,1913 and 1919, Prokopovich concluded that the inequality of income was increasing during the period 1875 - 1919. A contrary conclusion was derived from the same data by Heifferich, who claimed that no tendency towards a greater concentration of income was observable. On the other hand, Angelopoulos studied the data for the years 1896,1914 and 1926 and inferred that the inequality of income had diminished during the period 1896 -1926. 3.3 SOCIAL TENSIONS AND THEIR CAUSES

3.3 Social Tensions Social tensions usually result from the conscious pursuit of exclusive values by individuals and/or social groups. The individual and groups always widen or narrow their claims on society for life, liberty of movement, property and other desirable things by competing against one another. Competitors become self-conscious rivals, opponents or even enemies. The relative position of an individual in relation to the current value in a society is controlled by influences of which he is mostly unaware. On the other hand, everyone believes in some measures that his personality and life can and should be protected from the encroachment by others and that it can be enhanced at the expense of others. Thinking along these lines by individuals and groups leads to social conflict, which may involve the defence of what already has or the acquisition of what one does not have. Acquisition may mean taking away of that belongs to another or the appropriation of that which another would like to have. The defensive, destructive and obstructive aspects of a social conflict become entangled with one another in every crisis and create social tensions. Exclusive values may be pursued by individuals and groups by various means which may vary all the way from physical violence to persuasion and thus include the whole range of techniques used for social control. Conflict among human beings differs from the struggle for survival among animals in the diversity of the means employed by the former. Each animal is bound by its very structure to a few stereotyped means for coping with a conflictsituation. On the other hand, the nature of man is so plastic that rich variations can be found within the human species among the means employed to deal with conflicts. Thus, the place of physical combat is usually taken by argument, onition( warning) , ridicule( to laugh at) , litigation( engaged in a lawsuit.) , etc. and these are the functions of cultural setting in which conflicts occur. Social conflict is a mode of ing or consummating social change. As a result, conflict is more acute in case of rapid social changes, when the vested interests of the old social order stand out against the pressures from the new. A social crisis may bring about a willingness to come to with the requirements of new realities. Thus, strikes, boycotts and wars frequently lead to a more permanent organisation f interests and social tensions and subside after prolonged agitations and protracted litigations. Social crisis may also result in the obliteration of one or both of the contending parties. It is not always true, however, that a particular social conflict can produce a relatively abiding settlement. It has often been said that vital issues are never decided: they are merely superseded. There are numerous causes of social tensions. The most important ones are: (1) Class struggle. (2) Political corruption. (3) Crime. (4) Competition. (5) Unemployment. (6) Heterogeneous ( different in kind) population. (7) Racialism. (8) Religious intolerance( inability to tolerate) . • Linguistic ( relating to languages or knowledge or the study of language) intolerance. • (10) Uneven distribution of wealth. (11) Rapid social change. (12) War. Among the above twelve causes of social tensions, the first five are very visible. 3.3.2 Class Struggle Class struggle is a form of social conflict, which creates tension in the society. Credit for the theory of class struggle goes to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. They formulated the doctrine of class struggle in the Communist Manifesto in 1847. Marx's theory of class struggle asserts that, in the course of making a living and utilising technical knowledge and industrial equipment, the of society become segregated into classes which carry on different functions in industry and, as a result, occupy different positions in the social organisation. Among these classes, there arises an Antagonism ( opposition ) of interests, which may lead to a struggle. The modem capitalistic regime ( system of government) does not abolish the class struggle; it merely creates new classes and intensifies the struggle among the classes. With the development of capitalism, society splits up more and more into two hostile camps – the bourgeoisie ( the middle class of citizens) and the proletariat ( the poorest labouring class) . The bourgeoisie attempts to convert surplus value into profits, while the proletariat tries to resist it. In the ensuing struggle, the workers realize that the power of the bourgeoisie rests on the ownership of the means of production and that economic exploitation ( the act of using for selfish purposes) can be ended only through establishment of a ocialist society based on collective ownership. On the basis of his theory of class struggle, Marx predicted the inevitable victory of the proletariat with assumption of certain inherent tendencies in capitalism, viz., the rapid concentration of industry, the disappearance of the middle class and the growth and increasing misery of the working class. In any society, the process of production is simultaneously a process of economic exploitation ( the act of successfully applying industry to any object ) . Those who do physical work receive less than they produce, not only because a portion of it is necessary for the extension of production, but also because they have to the owners of the means of production. The resulting antagonism ( opposition) finds its expression in a struggle for distribution of the total national product. As this struggle becomes conscious, it gives rise to class conflict and creates social tension. The dominant minority tries to maintain and extend the opportunities for exploitation, while the exploited majority continually strives to liberate itself. Gradually, class interests intermingle ( mix together ) with political, religious and even scientific and technological interests. Since the power of the ruling class is always concentrated in the organisation of the state, the oppressed class aims directly against the state. Every class truggle is a political struggle, which aims at the abolition ( to put an end to ) of the existing social order and establishment of a new social system. In order to prove capable of establishing a new social organisation, the class must possess certain essential characteristics: (1) It must be economically exploited and politically oppressed. (2) It must be a producing class. • It must be welded together by the conditions of its existence. • It must form a large mass or a majority of the population. According to the theory of class struggle, all these characteristics are found in the industrial working population. It is for this reason that the industrial proletariat represents the only class, which can carry out a complete social revolution and can reorganise society on the basis of the socialist ideal. The peasantry ( a lowly class of smallholders) lacks most of the above

traits. On the other hand, the peasantry forms a large portion of the population in most countries. So, it is essential that the industrial workers should ally ( a choice taw or large marble) themselves with the poorer elements of the peasantry to carry out the social reorganisation. The classical theory of class struggle, as outlined above, has encountered many difficulties. No definitive division of society can be made into classes on the basis of the so-called factors of production, the law of the division of labour or the sources of income. In modern society, the struggle by economic and social groups is fragmentary and intermittent. It is generally concentrated around major issues of immediate importance. It is also inevitable that economic interests should be overshadowed from time to time bv cultural, religious or racial factors. Nationalism, both as economic and cultural phenomena, tends to offset the formation of classes. Economically, machination is likely to regard itself as one unit common interests as against other nations. Culturally, each nation tries to consolidate its economic coherence by means of national ideals which permeate( to penetrate and fill the pores of ) all social groups. To the extent to which it anifests( that may be easily seen by the eye or perceived by the mind) itself, the struggle of economic groups i&a potent factor of social change. Manifestations of group conflicts like strikes reveal stagnant conditions and serve as a stimulus to their elimination or amelioration ( to improve) . On the other hand, when such conflicts in the industrial world are concerned merely with group shares in the distribution of wealth, they may result in social detriment ( damage) . In large social transformations, the struggle of classes may lead to social disintegration ( to break up) . This is true specially when the class struggle is carried out among social groups which are in early stages of economic and intellectual development. Such class struggles have often resulted in social crises.

Page 25 Notes 3.3.3 Political Corruption Political corruption is generally the misuse of public power for private profit. Although no political group has been entirely free from jobbery ( unfair means employed to secure some private end) , corruption has not prevailed to an equal degree at all times or under all conditions. It has responded to various opportunities for the misuse of power reated by various governmental institutions. Any analysis of the prevalence ( common) of political corruption, therefore, must regard it as a phenomenon of group psychology, conditioned by the entire cultural setting of the group. Thus, no remedial programme to eliminate political corruption can be fully successful if it limits itself to the prosecution ( persevere with ) of individual offenders or even to istrative organisations. Political corruption requires the existence of public officials with power to choose between two or more courses of action and the possession by the government of some power or wealth, which can be used for private gains. These two prerequisites are found even in relatively simple primitive societies. However, corruption was generally scarce ( by no means plentiful ) in primitive societies, primarily because of the dominance of tradition in determining conduct and the promptness of punishment. It was the British historian Lecky who remarked in his book History of European Morals that "It is possible that the moral standard of most men is much lower in political judgements than in private matters in which their own interests are concerned". It is doubtful, however, that political morality is worse than average business morality. In modern societies, business and government are increasingly placed in direct relationship with each other through various government contracts, which are becoming more and more important with the growing scale of governmental activity. Especially conducive to corruption are contracts for military supplies, particularly in times of war. In modern times, war involves huge expenditure under conditions of relaxed public control since public attention is focused on supplying the soldiers with what ever they need regardless of cost. After the war, surplus war materials are disposed of at a fraction of their cost. Thus, recognition by businessmen of the opportunities for tremendous profits during and after the war increases the strain on the honesty of public officials. It goes without saying that corruption is not restricted to any particular country or society. Corruption is an international phenomenon. However, developing countries are generally found to be more corrupt than developed ones. A recent survey of 50 important nations of the world has shown that India, Pakistan, Nigeria, China and Russia are among the most corrupt countries in the world, while Switzerland, Singapore, New Zealand and the US are among the least corrupt countries. The exposure of corruption may come through individuals (investigative journalists) or organisations. Under the party system of governments, exposures of political corruption result from the desire of opposition parties out of power to obtain power. In many Latin American countries, where elections may not be very fair, revolution is the only way to accomplish the change of government. While some improvements in conditions often result from such revolutions, corruption generally continues for the benefits of new governments. No particular system of government is a guarantee against political corruption. Corruption can be eliminated only where the power to do so is linked with the desire to crush corruption . But power itself is an inducement to corruption. As the saying goes, "power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely". Little progress in getting rid of corruption can be expected where those in power either benefit from corruption or fail to recognise the necessity for its elimination. Ignorance of the existence of corruption, widespread benefits derived from the lavish ( to waste ) distribution of goods, political indifference (or lack of political will) and materialistic culture are the major factors which contribute to corruption in the political life of a nation and create tension in society. 3.3.4 Crime Antisocial conduct (known popularly as "crime") may be regarded as a universal phenomenon or a function of group-life. Its extent, particular form it takes and the reaction it provokes ( to call up or evoke (feelings, desires, etc)) are intimately dependent on the cultural status and social organisation of the group. The term "crime" is used indiscriminately by the layman to denote antisocial, immoral or sinful behaviour. What the law calls crime is merely conduct, which is declared to be socially harmful by the groups, which are powerful enough to influence? legislation in a state. The existence of crime in a community is a challenge to its since crime is harmful for ordered social growth. Combating ( a struggle) crime

involves huge economic burden and enormous waste of misdirected energy. The progress of the science of human behaviour in the last several decades has increasingly centred its attention on criminal behaviour. As a result, the last half century has seen the development of the science of criminology- Official and private agencies for the study of criminals and their treatment have also multiplied rapidly during this period. The reason is that the task of dealing with crime and criminals is such that it demands knowledge of facts upon which an intelligent programme of study and treatment may be based. Given the serious nature of crime and its adverse effects on society, much thought has been devoted to its control. Two general lines of thought have emerged for the purpose of controlling crime, the ameliorative ( to improve) and the repressive ( to keep under control;) philosophies. The ameliorative philosophy asserts that as the ranks of the middle class grow in a society, fewer and fewer people commit crime. Moreover, as the middle class grows, more people may become intolerant ( too bad ) of crime and they commit offences more frequently. As a result, criminal acts that do occur can be treated more effectively. In order to control crime, it is necessary to bring about the middle class by upgrading socio-economically the lower class. In contrast to this, the repressive philosophy regards the modern society (especially in developed nations) inherently prone to criminal behaviour due to the decline of informal community control, greater secularisation ( pertaining to the present world ) and more egoistic ( the 'I' or self, that which is conscious and thinks) moral code. Consequently, modern society may at best be expected to produce an affluent population lacking in personal restraint ( forcible control ) and civic consciousness. In the first place, punitive ( punishment) methods must be employed to redress offences and efficient organisation must be used to prevent crime. Regarding enforcement of law, istration of justice and rehabilitation ( restore to former privileges, rights,) o f criminals, the above two contrary lines of thought have given rise to three strategies (or policies) to combat crime. These three strategies are referred to as punitive, therapeutic ( relating to the curing of disease ) and preventive respectively. The punitive approach regards the offender not. Only as justifying punishment morally, but as being also susceptible to deterrent measures. Punishment is, therefore, exercised to incapacitate the criminal for the present and to keep him away from engaging in any criminal act in the future. In many developed countries, the punitive method has lost ground to the other two ameliorative methods. As a result, the capital punishment has already been abolished in most countries. The therapeutic approach, on the other hand, deems the offender to be malfunctioning and is in need of psychological or sociological treatment. In the US, about 20% of the staff employed for law enforcement and istration of justice deal with corrections, with rehabilitation as their primary goal. The preventive approach centres on modifying the interaction of social and individual conditions to forestall offensive behaviour. This method calls for improvement of sociological environment, strengthening of social structure and development of conforming personalities. Education and recreation can play a vital part in this respect, and so can a wide range of other practices like vocational placement and community organisation. 3.3.5 Competition Competition is an important term in social theory. It is by competition (of persons, firms, industries, nations, races or cultures) that the fittest survives. Competition arises out of rivals ( a person pursuing an object in competition with another) , which is a universal fact in life and society. Rivalry ( competition) is manifested in a struggle among germ cells among plants for sunlight and growth and among animals, for food and mates. Rivalry is evident in the striving in our daily life and appears in every social order under which men live. It is due to rivalry that conflicts occur among primitive tribes for hunting grounds and among capitalists to bag huge profits. In the march of history, a machine process wins its way against ancient crafts, a novelty called "business" displaces custom and authority in the control of industries and a modern creed ( any system of belief or set of principles) replaces outworn dogma in domination over human mind. The subject of competition has invited varied and often conflicting statements from various authors since a single explanation of a complex social phenomenon like competition are inadequate. Competition is hardly distinguished from free enterprise and capitalism. On the one hand, competition is the gigantic/ huge motor which causes the individuals to use their mental and physical powers to the best advantage to go ahead. Competition develops in the individual the habit of self-reliance. Competition has lifted the human race to a standard where the mode of living of common labourers in developed countries is more comfortable than the daily existence of ancient kings. On the other hand, competition is a nice new name for the brutal/ senselessly cruel; fact of all against all, without pity or mercy. Carried to its logical conclusion, competition may turn into anarchy. in recent times, competition has invited attention of social thinkers and activists. One group demands that competition be preserved in all its native simplicity, while another group would like to eradicate/ to destroy or get rid of the evil of competition and substitute it with a moral economic order. But since the shortcomings of competition lie in its specific performance, the general demand has been to mend the system and make it work. As a result, the arrangements of competition have been modified from within in many cases. Businessmen, for example, form trade, industrial or commercial associations (e.g.. Truck Owners' Association) with an aim to make Competition less ruthless and more rational. Similarly, farmers organise co-operatives (e.g., Anand Milk Union Limited, better known as "AMUL") to escape the tyranny of an uncontrolled market. Labourers form trade unions only to secure a bargaining power equal to that of their employers. Often, the state interferes in private matters for several reasons, to conserve natural resources, to ensure the quality of goods by standardisation, to fix hours of labour, to provide compensation for accidents and so on. But even the use of formal authority in such cases leaves the rival firms in an industry as free to compete as before. In the wake of collective action and state intervention/ interference , competition is not eliminated; it merely becomes more regulated. A constructive effort has been made to maintain competition. An inherent weakness of competition lies in its dependence upon contract. So long as buyers want goods and sellers are willing to accept money, the liberty of contract promotes order. The greed for more money makes it advantageous to the producers of goods to agree among themselves to control production capacity, to regulate output and to stabilise prices. In such cases, the state is invoked to make the rivals compete rather than co-operate. Freedom of contract is encouraged along vertical lines (i.e., between buyer and seller) and has to be prohibited along horizontal lines (i.e., between buyer and buyer and between seller and seller).]

Page 26 Notes 3.3.6 Unemployment Work satisfies many needs of the individual and the community. For the individual, work satisfies the need to exercise his faculties and to participate in the collective work of society. In addition, work also gives the individual a claim upon social products, enabling him to himself and his family. In case of the community, work is necessary for survival and progress of civilisation. In traditional societies, in which the productivity of agricultural labour is very low, virtually the entire population must be employed in farming. When productivity reaches a certain level, the demand for primary goods (i.e., agricultural products) drops in relation to the demand for other goods like clothing, shelter and manufactured products. The production of these secondary goods ultimately becomes organized in factories and expands dramatically. As the demand for manufactured goods grows and remains high, employment in the secondary sector also remains high. In addition, there is also a tertiary sector of employment comprising of services like teaching, istration, medical care, tourism and other similar pursuits that are not carried out in factories. In countries with high standard of living, the demand for products of the tertiary sector keeps increasing. As a result, employment in this sector increases more rapidly than in the primary or secondary sector. The great shrinkage of employment in the primary sector is one of the most important phenomena of modern history. Men who abandon the soil have to change not only their means of livelihood but their residence and way of life. For a long time, the migration from a peasant culture involving millions of people went mainly towards the factories. Although the output of the factories continued to increase, the same was not the case with factory employment. In the US, employment in the secondary sector peaked at about one-third of the labour force from 1920 to 1970 and since then, the expansion has been in the tertiary sector. Technological progress would have led to unemployment (or much reduced working hours), had it not been for the expansion of the tertiary sector. The same is more or less true in case of other developed countries. The consumption of primary or agricultural goods eventually reaches a point of saturation. The consumption of manufactured goods es through a phase of increase and then another phase of relative decline. It is the tertiary sector, however, that absorbs most of the manpower freed by technological progress in the other two sectors. The result is that employment as a whole does not decline over the long run because of technological progress. In the wealthy and technologically advanced countries, neither the size of the work force nor the number of working hours per week has shown any tendency to decline in the last fifty years. Of course, there have been economic crises (like depression and recession/ the state of being set back ) giving rise to unemployment; but the unemployment created in this way was eventually absorbed. A dynamic economy requires that the labour force be mobile enough to move out of the sectors in which technological advances have reduced the need for manpower and into the sectors in which labour is in short supply. Such a migration, however, is inevitably accompanied by some degrees of unemployment or underemployment. During the Great Depression of the 1903s, the rate of unemployment in the western capitalist countries reached very high levels. In the US, the rate of unemployment reached 25% of the labour force in 1933. In Sweden, unemployment reached 25% twice (in 1921 and 1931). Even in Great Britain, unemployment was above 15% during the period of Great Depression. Since the Second World War, unemployment rates in developed countries have remained far below such catastrophic levels, but they are quite high in most of the developing nations. Even when the overall rate of unemployment is low, it remains a serious social problem. While some workers may be temporarily out of work (or ing from one job to another), others may remain unemployed for a long time. The US Bureau of Labour Statistics has studied the incidence of unemployment quite thoroughly. The figures of this Bureau show that women have more unemployment than men, young people more than adults and persons without education or special skills more than educated persons do. Since the Second World War, the governments of many countries (especially the developing ones) have become committed to a programme of reducing unemployment and underemployment. The constitution of explicitly charges the state with assuring full employment to its citizens. Similar goals have been set up with varying degrees in many other countries. Even, the Charter of the United Nations makes employment a major objective for its . Different governments have followed various policies in the pursuit of full employment. One general approach towards this end is to improve the supply of manpower; another is to alleviate / to make light; the adverse effects of unemployment and underemployment. A third approach to full employment seeks to maintain the economic activities at a high level through fiscal policies. Finally, there is the method of economic planning where the government's Planning Commission sets targets for various sectors of the economy that are linked to forecasts of available manpower. This approach is based on the belief that the complex problems of unemployment and underemployment cannot be separated from other problems of economic and social developments. Moreover, all the developed countries and many developing ones as well try to soften the impact of unemployment through some forms of unemployment compensation. In some cases, governments seek to induce employers to retrain workers for new jobs rather than laying them off. The problem of unemployment is often a regional matter. When this is the case, attempts are made by governments to mitigate it through regional development programmes. The efforts to deal with the instability of employment caused by technological and economic progress involve providing information on the state of the labour market and on the qualifications of those seeking work. This is done by government or private employment agencies in the hope of directing job seekers more efficiently to existing jobs or helping them to prepare for occupation in which manpower is likely to be needed. Most countries now have such agencies, designed to bring together the two sides of the labour market. Information provided by such employment agencies leads to guidance, and guidance leads to education, training and retraining. Many governments endeavour/ to attempt to provide or subsidise training programmes for those whom couldn't benefit from them. The use of monetary and fiscal/ pertaining to the public treasury or revenue policies to keep the economy functioning at a high level of employment has been undertaken in many countries since the Great Depression/ a lowering. In periods of recession or of growing unemployment, the government may increase the aggregate demand by expanding the money supply or by increasing its own spending. This approach was quite successful in the US

during the 1960s, when a major reduction in the income tax, incentives for business investments, and a large increase in federal spending for both war and non-war purposes brought the unemployment rate down to 3.5% (in 1969). In the years that followed, the US was faced with the problem of serious inflation/ undue increase in quantity of money in proportion to buying power . In order to solve the problem of inflation, efforts were made to stabilise prices; but these efforts directly led to rising unemployment. In contrast, the French government undertook national planning on a broad scale in the 1950s and 1960s and succeeded in it. The resulting high death rate among small children in such families (poor) often reinforces the tendency to have more children and, the vicious cycle continues. Money is a crucial factor in health care. Also suitable mental hospitals, child guidance and marriage guidance clinics and schemes for the care of alcoholics and ding/ Doctor of Engineering addicts are essential. There should be significant developments in the treatment of maladjusted of society. The fragmentation/ division into fragments of earlier health service organisations (such as single-disease-oriented programmes and the separation of curative and preventive services) is now giving way to more comprehensive organisations. Health promotion, disease prevention, curving of the ill and rehabilitation are brought together into one network of integrated services that reach the community level. Decisions of great complexity are involved in allocating limited resources to provide health services to a large number of people. In order to achieve optimum results, there should be an increasing emphasis on the health planning process and on the design of more effective public health service systems. An important aspect of national health planning should be close co-ordination between planning, budgeting, implementing and evaluating of health-care programmes. No public health service can be fully effective unless the concerned government will take care to this aspect.

Page 27 Notes 3.4.3 Public Education The essential features of a system of public education are the requirement of compulsory attendance, free tuition, provision of books and education an opportunity for all. In most countries, very few of these ideals have been realised in practice. Free education, for example, is generally limited to primary education in most countries. The additional proposal that free tuition should be supplemented by scholarships for maintenance of the students are still in the discussion stage even in the leading countries. Today there is a general tendency all over the world for compulsory education up to the age of fourteen. While the principle of compulsory education up to the age of fourteen has generally been accepted, the enforcement of compulsory attendance still lags far behind. This is partly due to poor economy conditions and inadequate number of schools in many countries and partly as a result of the inertia of parents who themselves have had no education The concept of public education, however, should not be limited to the provision of schools only. It should include the provision of all those activities and organisations that enable the students to derive the future benefits from the school work. These generally include provision for medical inspection, medical treatment, meals in school (with or without charge) excursions and, above all, adequate playgrounds and athletic facilities. To these should be added the agencies for vocational guidance and placement. It may be mentioned, that complete realisation of this combination of education and social services is not to be found in any one system of public education anywhere in the world. The reason is that the above conception of the scope of public education is of very recent origin. Although extracurricular activities such as various clubs. Boy Scouts, Girl Guides, NCC, etc are found everywhere, these have not yet been incorporated in public school systems under the control of public authorities. It is now responsibility of the systems under the control of public authorities. it is now responsibility of society to see that its get adequate public education 3.4.4 Welfare of Backward Classes A social welfare policy may be defined as the strategy of action indicating the means and methods adopted to implement the social welfare services the means and metnods adopted to implement it which include the following: (1) Welfare of backward classes. (2) Welfare or vulnerable portions of the society. (3) Family and child welfare (4) Correctional services. These services include programmes which are intended to cater to the These services include programmes which are intended to cater to the needs of persons and groups who, by reasons of social, economic or physical handicaps, are unable to avail of (or traditionally denied) the amenities ant services provided by the community. In other words, social welfare service offer services to those sections of the society who need special care. The vulnerable/ capable of being physically or emotionally wounded or injured sections of population, on the other hand, include person. belonging to backward classes, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, children youth, women, slum dwellers/ an overcrowded, squalid neighbourhood. , physically or mentally handicapped, women under moral danger, juvenile / young offenders, beggars, prisoners, etc. In spite of some remarkable advancements, the overall progress is no commensurate with the expenditure. There is a need to bring about a change in the existing organisational set-up for the implementation of social welfare policy in order to achieve integration and co-ordination among various social welfare services for the weaker sections. And the society has social welfare services for the weaker section tremendous responsibility to achieve the society. 3.4.5 Family and Child Welfare Several programmes for family and child welfare have been formulated and implemented in India since independence, but an explicit national policy in family and child welfare has not yet been evolved. The major emphasis present is on the integrated approach to provide welfare services to family and children. At present. Family and Child Welfare Projects are the

important programmes directed towards the welfare of women and children especially in rural areas. The Family and Child Welfare Projects normally cater to the children in the age group of 0-16 years and greater attention is paid to the children in the age group of 0-6 years. The Family and Child Welfare Projects are implemented at the block level. The responsibility of fulfilling the statutory obligations for family and child welfare under various central and state legislations rests mainly with the government agencies. The voluntary social welfare organisations deal mainly with non-statutory senders for the welfare of women, children, the handicapped and other vulnerable groups. Thus, the voluntary social welfare organisations share a major responsibility in the implementation of social welfare policy. Voluntary organisations in the society can play a crucial role in the field of family and child welfare due to their vast and pioneering experience in social welfare and their humane approach (in contrast to the bureaucratic approach by government agencies). The society has thus a pivotal role to play for family and child welfare. 3.5 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 3.5.1 Concept of Social Institutions Social institutions are organised ways to meet the basic needs of a society. Institutions usually involve norms that guide social interactions and thus, reducing the likelihood of random or unpredictable behaviour by the . A social institution can be defined as a cluster of norms that guide social interactions towards the fulfilment of one or more of the basic needs of a society. When these norms are accepted, persons interact socially in predictable ways that lead to fulfilment of societal needs. Education, religion, family, political system and the economic system are regarded as the basic social institutions in most societies. The concept of social institution can be broken down into three basic elements: (1) A social institution helps to fulfil one or more of the basic needs of a society. (2) Each social institution lays down a set of norms. (3) Social interaction is guided by the norms of a social institution and these norms are expressed in the roles associated with various social positions. The first element explains the purpose or function of a social institution. Each society has certain fundamental needs, which must be met if the society has to survive. Social institutions help meet these needs. Economy meets the need for efficient production and exchange of goods and services, while the family meets the need for reproduction and socialisation of new social . The second element involves a cluster of norms. These norms specify certain procedures that should be followed like paying interest on borrowed money and buying goods at a certain rate. The third element included in the concept of a social institution is that interaction among persons is greatly influenced by social positions and accompanying roles associated with an institution. Each institution has a number of social positions like mother and father in the family, block and district representatives in the political institution and students and teachers in the educational institution. A social institution usually exhibits the following characteristics: (1) It emerges through unplanned development. (2) It changes slowly. (3) It is related to other institutions. (4) It assumes different forms in different societies. The development of a social institution is the result of a gradual evolutionary process. In case of a family, the of a society do not consciously agree that their family institution has to take a particular form. Rather it emerges over a period of time in accordance with several other social changes. Similarly, changing sex roles in the institution of a family in modern Indian societies have significantly influenced the institution of economy. Employment of women on a massive scale has contributed to many changes in the family institution. The norms and forms of social institutions in one society may bear little resemblance to the same institutions in another society. For example, political, economic, religious, educational and family institutions in the US are quite different from that of China.

Page 28 Notes 3.5.2 Functions of Social Institutions The term "institution" in its social usage implies a way or thought or action which is embedded in the habits or customs of a group of people. The range of institutions is as wide as the interests of mankind. Any informal body of usage (such as common law, higher education, moral code, etc.) is an institution in the sense that it lends sanctions, imposes taboos/ forbidden and lords it over some human concerns. Any formal organisation like the government, the church, the university and the trade union imposes commands, lays out penalties and exercises authority over its . All these are examples of social institutions. They may be rigid or flexible in their structures, strict or lenient/ tolerant in their demands, but all of them constitute standards of conformity from which an individual member may depart only at his peril/ danger . Our culture is a synthesis or a collection of institutions. Each of these institutions has it own domain and its distinctive office. The function of each social institution is to set a pattern of behaviour and to fix a zone of tolerance for various activities related to the institution. Etiquette/ forms of civilized manners or decorum , for example, decrees/ to decide or determine by sentence in law the rituals/ relating to, which must be observed in all polite social intercourse. Education, on the other hand, provides civilizing exposures through which the potential capacities of individuals are developed into the abilities for performance, appreciation and enjoyment. The institution of marriage gives propriety to the sex union, bestows/ to give or confer (a reward, distinction, etc) regularity upon procreation/ to generate , establishes the structure of the family and creates a balance between personal ambition and social stability. A number of social institutions may combine or compete to impress character upon the mass of human endeavour/ an attempt or trial and to give direction to it. Thus, the state claims primary obedience and imposes some order upon the activities of mankind. The institution of law determines the outmost limits of

acceptable actions by punishing offenders and settling disputes. The community is made up of such overlapping provinces of various social institutions. It is the social institution in its role of organiser which makes this world a social world. 3.5.3 Origin and Development of Social Institutions It is almost impossible to discover a legitimate origin for such an organic and complex entity as a social institution. Its origin may lie in an accidental, arbitrary or a conscious action. A man (savage or civilised) strikes a spark from flint/ a variety of quartz , makes an image from mud or brews/ to prepare by infusion a concoction/ to fabricate . The act is repeated and then multiplied; ideas, sanctions and habits from the existing culture get attached; and gradually there develops a ritual/ relating to of fire, a ceremonial for appeasing/ to placate by making or effecting concessions gods, or a cult of healing/ to cure . In all societies, however forward or backward, the roots of even the most elementary arrangements like barter/ to give in exchange , burial, worship, work life and sex union run far back into the unknown past and embody the knowledge, ignorance, hope and fear of people. In fact, a social institution has no origin apart from its development, since an institution is an aspect of a continuous social process. A social institution emerges form the impact of novel circumstances upon ancient custom and it is transformed into a different group of usage by cultural change. In the growth of a social institution, the usual may give way to the unusual so gradually as to be almost unnoticed. As an institution develops within a culture, it responds to changes in the prevailing/ to be victorious sense and reason. The public regulation of business consistently reflect the prevailing thinking on the relation between the state and the industry. Similarly, the pages of law reports reveal the ingenuity with which the same old rules and standards are reinterpreted to serve the changing notions/ an idea of social necessity. In this continuous process of adaptation by an institution to the prevailing intellectual environment, an active role is assumed by the common sense, i.e., the body of ideas taken for granted by a society during a particular period. Because common sense determines the climate of opinion within which all other institutions must operate, it is the dominant institution in a society. In an even broader way, an institution is accommodated to the folkways of culture in a society. As circumstances impel/ to urge forward and common opinions in a society change, an institution held in high esteem earlier (e.g., piracy) may fall from grace/ easy elegance in form or manner , while another under taboo (such as birth control) may at first win tolerance and later general acceptance. As one social system es into another and the values of life change, one social institution gives way to another that is better adapted to the times. An institution that survives, such as matrimony, has to respond to cultural changes and adapt to them. In the social process, the life of an institution depends upon its capacity for adaptation to changing social conditions. The same process of development applies to an institution introduced from an alien society. The act of borrowing a social institution from another society merely gives the opportunity for its modification to suit the needs of the adopting society. When Russia appropriated the industrial Revolution, it stripped away the enveloping business arrangement and converted it into an instrument to serve as a national social economic system. The act of transplantation/ to transfer of a social institution into another society may at first retard its growth, but eventually it is lively to promote it.

Page 29 Notes 3.5.4 Functioning of Social Institutions The very flexibility of a social institution makes it a creature of social stress and strain. In a stable or a slowly-changing society, an institution fits rather neatly into the cultural pattern of the society. On the other hand, if social changes bring disorder, the structure of a social institution may be compromised. A social institution may even fall into the hands of "enemies" and be used to defeat its proclaimed/ to announce officially purpose. Thus a community of ascetics/ a person who rigidly abstains from ordinary bodily gratifications for conscience's sake often develops into a wealthy religious establishment, a political party dedicated to personal freedom becomes the champion of vested wealth and a philosophy contrived to liberate thought remains to enslave it. Those who contrive rules and formulae cannot control the uses to which they are put. In the course of time, therefore, the function of a social institution may be compromised or even lost in its establishment. The spirit may become the letter and the vision may be lost in a ritual of conformity. If a social institution becomes formal, a greater hazard to its integrity is found in its organisation and its personnel. Thus, a need for law and order finds an expression in a government, the demand for justice in a legal system and the desire for worship in a church. When the government, legal system and church are formally established, various groups become interested in their structure and offices, their procedures and emoluments/ advantage and their ceremonials and traditions. A host of officials come into being, who are mainly interested in the maintenance of the establishment to which they are committed. These officials have their own preferences and prejudices and they are not immune/ free from obligation to consideration of their own prestige and position. As an institution becomes more formal and more rigid, the good of theinstitution rather than its proclaimed purpose tends to become dominant. When this happens, the lines of activity of the formalised institution may be frozen into rigidity. As long as a social institution remains vital, men accommodate their actions to its detailed arrangements with little worry about its inherent nature or its cosmic purpose. When it begins to give way or it is seriously challenged, compelling arguments are set forth to justify the existence of an institution. For example, the institution of capitalism was never created by design; but now that it is already there, contemporary/ belonging to the same time (with) scholars have intellectualised it into a purposive and self-regulating instrument of general welfare. So long as people are able to do as their fathers and grandfathers did, they manifest little curiosity about the arrangements under which they live and work. So long as the procedure of institution is unquestioned, people are little aware of the conventions and values which give rise even to outstanding achievements of an institution.

3.5.5 Organic Nature of Social Institutions Institutional development always drives a fault line between current fact and prevailing opinion. Men meet new events with the wisdom they already possess. That wisdom usually belongs to the past since it is a product of the experience of a bygone era. As new social institutions emerge from the old, men persist dealing with the unfamiliar in their old and familiar ways. Thus a social institution, like a living thing that it is, has a tangled/ involve in i dentity. It cannot be shown in perspective or revealed in detail by the logical method of exclusion and inclusion. Each institution holds within itself elements drawn from the modern era of information technology, the rational universe of the eighteenth century and the folkways of some far offcenturies. It holds many unknown possibilities, which a suitable occasion may bring to life. It may be concluded that a social institution is an imperfect agent of an order and purpose in a developing culture. It is created by both intent and chance. A social institution imposes its pattern of conduct upon the activities of men and its compulsion upon the course of unanticipated events. A social institution may, like any other creation of man, be taken into bondage by the power that it was designed to control. An institution is a folkway, always new and yet ever old, directive and yet responsive, a creature of means and also a master of ends. MODEL QUESTIONS (Essay/Long Type) 3.1 Define and explain "social mobility". 3.2 Explain in detail the vertical mobility. 3.3 Write in brief the consequences of mobility. 3.4 What is understood by "income"? Explain in brief. 3.5 Define and explain "national income". 3.6 Write a note on income distribution. 3.7 What are the causes of inequality of income? Explain in brief. 3.8 What are the consequences of inequality of income? Explain. 3.9 Explain the causes behind social tensions. 3.10 "Class struggle creates social tensions"-Justify the statement. 3.11 Explain "political corruption". 3.12 Define crime. Give reasons behind crime. Suggest steps to control crime. 3.13 Write a note on "Competition". 3.14 What are the major causes behind unemployment ? Suggest some measures to reduce the rate of unemployment. 3.15 List the societal responsibilities and explain each in very brief. 3.16 "Public health services. Public education. Welfare of backward classes and Family and child welfare are the major societal responsibilities" - Explain to justify the statement. 3.17 What is understood by "social institutions"? Explain. 3.18 Writeinbriefthefunctiorlsofsocialinstitutions. (Objective/Short iype) 3.19 What is a horizontal mobility ? 3.20 Give an example of a vertical mobility. 3.21 Define real income. 3.22 Listthepossiblemeasurestoreduceinequalityofincome. 3.23 Write the Pareto's law mathematically. 3.24 Draw the Lorenz Curve for equal distribution of income. 3.25 The strategies to combat crime are: • Punitive (c) Preventive • 3.26 Match the following: (A) Communist Manifesto (B) NCC (b) Therapeutic (d) All the three. (a) Nigeria (b) KarIMarx (0 Corrupt country (c) Mahatma Gandhi (D) Tertiary sector (d) India 3.27 Write true or false: The mobility is said to be mtergenerational when an individual movesvertically upward or downward within his own lifetime. 3.28 Write true or false: Opportunities for mobility are greatly enhanced during a recession or a depression. 3.29 Write true or false: The total income of an individual is the total money value of the services received by him from all sources, including his own activity. 3.30 Write true or false: Social institutions are never the organized ways to meet the basic needs of society. 3.31 Name the odd ones: (a) Health promotion (b) Family welfare (c) Class conflict (d) Rehabilitation. 3.32 Fill up the blanks: The five main causes of social tensions are __________, __________,